
①点苍山山前断裂, ②海东断裂, ③福寿场-江尾断裂; ④周城-清水断裂带; ⑤西洱河断裂
Citation: | WANG Liang-yu, LIAO Qun-an, XIAO Dian, et al., 2016. PETROGENESIS AND TECTONIC SIGNIFICANCE OF EARLY CARBONIFEROUS A-TYPE GRAINTE IN HARLIK, XINJIANG. Journal of Geomechanics, 22 (4): 1032-1048. |
近年来, 随着软土地区工程建设的迅速发展, 饱和土的物理力学特性研究受到了工程地质和岩土工程界的极大关注, 国内一些地区在软土工程特性研究方面取得了不少进展[1]。作者以云南大理洱海东缘的早全新世软粘土为例, 较系统地测试分析了软粘土的工程地质特性, 并对洱海东缘软粘土各基本物理力学性质指标之间的相关关系进行了分析, 结果不仅可用于软土力学性质指标的估算, 而且对于指导软粘土工程问题的处理具有较大的实际意义。
洱海位于云南省大理市, 是滇西最大的断陷湖泊, 长42km, 宽最大9km, 湖面海拔1974m, 湖水面积约249. 8km2[2], 属澜沧江水系。洱海西邻前寒武纪板岩和大理岩构成点苍山, 东部为晚古生代的石灰岩低山丘陵, 北测为入口, 向南为西洱河, 是一个开放的湖泊水系。
根据前人研究成果[3], 洱海盆地于始新世开始断陷接受沉积。晚更新世时气候寒冷, 大理冰期来临, 来自西侧点苍山的山岳冰川产生强烈的刨蚀作用, 造成河流堵塞。进入早全新世时, 气候发生变化、温度上升, 洱海水泛滥, 平均水位达海拔2160m, 形成大量河湖相或河湖-沼泽相沉积。全新世中期, 全区持续上升, 湖水大面积干涸或范围缩小, 水位下降到海拔2000m左右[4, 5]。全新世晚近时期, 区内湖泊进一步缩小或干涸, 洱海目前的水位是1974m。随着洱海水位不断下降, 湖泊面积逐渐缩小, 原湖泊近岸水面下的沉积地层出露水面, 即洱海软粘土主要分布在洱海断陷湖的周缘。经孢粉分析和14C年龄测定, 洱海边缘的软粘土主要是近一万年全新世以来的沉积[6]。
根据移液管全分散法粒度分析结果(表 1), 洱海东缘软粘土具有高分散性, 砂粒含量极低, 主要由粉粒和粘粒组成, d<5μm的粘粒含量大部分在35 %以上, 最高达60. 32 %。
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粘土矿物定量测试结果表明, 洱海东缘软粘土的主要粘土矿物成分为单矿物蒙脱石(S)(图 2), 占粘土矿物总量的80 ~ 81 %, 次要粘土矿物为高岭石(K), 占16 %~ 17 %, 伊利石(I)仅占2 %~ 4 % (表 2)。洱海富Mg2+的水体环境和周边大量蒙脱石化蚀变岩的分布是形成大量蒙脱石的原因[7]。
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比表面积指标可以较好地反映粘性土的物理化学活性。采用乙二醇乙醚吸附法测定结果表明, 洱海软粘土的比表面积为176. 78 ~ 448. 23m2 g, 平均值299. 32m2 g, 说明其物理活性较高。
洱海东缘软粘土为淡水湖相沉积, 采用土水比1: 5悬浮液测得样品的pH值为6. 23 ~ 7. 9 (表 3), 基本属中性。洱海软粘土的含盐量通常小于100mg 100g, 个别地点因有机质大量聚集, 引起局部含盐量升高(主要为SO42-)。孔隙溶液的主要阳离子及粘土矿物表面可交换性阳离子都是以Ca2+为主, 不存在高浓度Cl--Na+引起的絮凝作用, 因而粘土矿物物理化学活性强、交换量高。交换性Ca2+引起的粘土颗粒絮凝作用和双电层压缩明显, 造成粘土结构强度高、粘聚力增大、压缩性降低。
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根据洱海东缘软粘土的实验结果(表 4), 软粘土的工程地质特性主要表现在以下方面:
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(1) 含水量较高。含水量一般在40 %~ 65 %之间, 最高可达104 %, 平均值为57. 08 %, 接近于液限, 几乎处于饱和状态。
(2) 天然孔隙比大。孔隙比一般在0. 64 ~ 2. 63之间, 平均值为1. 49。
(3) 压缩性大。软粘土压缩系数为0. 23 ~ 2. 21MPa-1, 平均值0. 88MPa-1;压缩模量一般为1. 45 ~ 5. 63MPa, 平均值3. 14MPa。数据统计表明, 其中有14 %的软粘土为中等压缩性, 86 %为高压缩性, 说明洱海软粘土虽以高压缩性为主, 但中压缩性仍占有一定比例, 说明这部分软粘土已经发生了一定程度的固结。
(4) 高塑性。液限多在45 %以上, 最高达101. 3 %, 平均值为58. 17 %; 塑限多大于25 %, 最高近61 %, 平均值约31. 4 %; 塑性指数的平均值绝大多数大于20 %。总体上, 洱海早全新世软粘土属于高塑性粘土。
(5) 强度低。天然不排水快剪抗剪强度平均值只有29. 71kPa, 按照25kPa限, 超出软粘土范围; 按照布朗40kPa标准则为中等软粘土。表明土体抵抗剪切变形的能力差。
(6) 固结系数小。该区软粘土固结系数一般在0. 11 ~ 4. 42cm2/s之间, 平均值为1. 08 cm2/s, 说明该区软土完成固结沉降需要较长时间, 这对施工工期影响很大。
(7) 透水性弱。低渗透性是软粘土的共同属性, 其渗透性大小随粘粒含量和塑性指数的增高而降低, 洱海软粘土渗透系数最低0. 04 ×10-7 cm/s, 高者达4. 17 ×10-7 cm/s, 一般为0. 30 ~ 0. 60 ×10-7cm/s, 平均值0. 39 ×10-7 cm/s; 表明软土的排水固结不好, 对排水固结不利。
洱海东缘软粘土沉积年代较短, 固结程度低, 淤泥及淤泥质粘土呈絮状结构, 具有发育的孔隙, 因而压缩性大。鉴别天然粘土沉积是否属于正常固结的方法有很多种, Skempton (1970)建议采用以下两种方法[8] :
(1) 用Casagrande图解法从压缩实验求得先期固结压力σ′vo; 即延长e-logσ′v曲线的原始直线部分与通过原位孔隙比e0的水平线相交得出下限σ′vc(min)。如果σ′vo夹在σ′vc和σ′vc(min)之间, 则粘土是正常固结的。
(2) 根据Su/σ′vo与深度的关系判断(Su是不排水抗剪强度, 根据粘聚力和内摩擦角由公式τ=c+σtanθ计算而得)。如果各点近似落在一条直线上, 即如果不排水抗剪强度随着有效覆盖压力成比例增加, 则认为粘土是正常固结的。
对洱海东缘软粘土固结性采用第二种方法进行分析。根据室内实验结果(图 3), 抗剪强度与有效应力之比(Su/σ′vo)随深度出现两种不同的变化变化规律。从地表到大致10m左右的深度, Su/σ′vo随深度呈现对数变化规律, 对其进行回归分析, 可以看出有明显的相关性, 相关系数为0. 91。相关关系可以表示如下:
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(1) |
根据Skempton建议采用的方法判断, 表明表层软粘土并非正常固结, 而是出现超固结现象。从图 3中含水量、容重、不排水抗剪强度随深度变化情况也可以证明这一点。在表层(约0 ~ 10m)天然含水量随深度而增大, 容重、不排水抗剪强度随深度而减少。
初步分析认为, 出现这种现象主要是受大气的影响。在特定的气候条件下(主要是干旱气候条件), 蒸发量大于降水量, 同时伴随着地下水位也降低。湖面退缩, 湖相沉积地层出露水面而暴露在空气中, 由于蒸发失水, 致使土层干燥, 同时地下水位下降, 有效应力增加, 产生土体固结, 孔隙比减少, 出现并非仅在自身重力作用下的固结过程, 即超固结过程。这类在历史上曾经受到的最大压力大于目前承受的有效应力的粘土称之为超固结粘土。地表土而后经过雨水的淋滤及不断的物理化学变化, 形成不同于下部, 但与下部土层成渐变的硬壳层, 这个硬壳层表现出液性指数与含水量小、抗剪强度大的工程特性[9]。
实际工程中经常建立土体物理力学性质指标之间的相互关系式, 从而根据容易测定的物理性质指标估算难以准确测定的力学性质指标, 以供工程应用参考。采用线性回归方法, 对洱海东缘早全新世软粘土的主要物理力学性质指标之间的相关关系进行统计分析。
对洱海东缘软粘土的114组实验数据进行了变异性分析(表 5)。分析结果表明, 物理指标的变异系数一般小于力学指标的变异系数。在物理指标中, 容重的变异系数最小, 力学指标的变异系数一般都比较大。力学指标变异性稍大, 出现较大的波动, 这主要是由于包括取样、进行力学实验时, 由于仪器或人为因素影响而出现较大的差异性。其本身并不反映当地软土力学指标具有明显的地区性差异, 所以分布于洱海东缘湖泊岸过渡带的软土, 在物理和力学指标上基本一致。
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对洱海东缘软粘土物理力学指标参数进行了相关性统计(图 4), 回归方程及相关系数见表 6。
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从统计结果可以看出, 洱海东缘铁路沿线软粘土含水量W与孔隙比e、塑性指数IP与液限WL、孔隙比e与压缩系数av、含水量W与压缩系数av具有显著正相关性; 液性指数IL与快剪粘聚力C、含水量W与快剪内摩擦角φ、塑性指数IP与压缩系数av之间存在较为明显的负相关性。
洱海东缘的软土主要是大理冰期后早全新世气候变暖、点苍山冰川融化、洱海湖水水位上升湖面扩大所形成的湖积粘土。本文在野外地质调查和室内试验结果分析的基础上对洱海东缘软粘土的分布、物质组成、物理性质和力学性质等方面进行了研究, 取得以下主要认识:
(1) 洱海东缘软粘土的粘粒含量高, 粘土矿物组成以单矿物的蒙脱石为主, 孔隙溶液及粘土矿物表面可交换性阳离子都是以Ca2+为主; 比表面积高, 物理化学活性较强。
(2) 洱海东缘软粘土具有高孔隙性、高含水量、高塑性、中高压缩性、低强度等特性。在地表约10米以上, 软粘土呈现超固结硬化现象, 天然含水量随深度增加, 容重和抗剪强度随深度减少。
(3) 洱海东缘软粘土的主要物理力学指标参数之间具有较好的相关性, 回归分析得出的方程可用于力学指标的预测和估算, 对工程应用有较大的实际意义, 但地区性经验公式的建立, 还有待于进一步的分析探讨。
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