Liquefaction-induced large-scale ground deformation triggered by the 7 January 2025 MS 6.8 Dingri earthquake: characteristics and formation mechanisms
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摘要: 为探究2025年1月7日西藏定日MS 6.8地震诱发的大规模复杂地表变形带的形成机制与变形过程，基于现场应急调查、高分辨率遥感影像解译、无人机航测、钻孔及探槽等多源数据，结合区域地质背景分析，系统研究了地表变形带的空间展布特征及成因机制。结果表明：登么错湖东岸至朋曲河沿线的地表变形带主要为地震诱发的液化变形，湖东岸局部可见小规模同震地表破裂；而尼辖错北则以同震地表破裂为主导变形模式，叠加地震诱发的液化变形现象。砂土液化显著降低了沉积物抗剪强度，诱发沉积物发生横向扩展，产生横向推挤效应和水平位移。液化区的整体位移使变形带后缘发生伸展变形，前缘因推挤作用形成挤压缩短构造。横向扩展形成的地裂缝为沙火山的喷发提供了运移通道，从而造成了挤压变形、伸展变形及沙火山等构造共生的特殊变形现象。地震动是这些变形的主要触发因素，丰富的砂质沉积物及较浅的地下水位为地震液化提供了必要的基础条件。研究成果不仅揭示了地震诱发液化变形的机制，也为震后重建规划、重大工程选址和施工提供了科学依据，在藏南裂谷地区具有重要的参考意义。Abstract:
Objective In liquefaction-susceptible geological settings, the spatial superimposition of earthquake-induced liquefaction and coseismic fault rupture renders the genetic attribution of surface deformation highly ambiguous, yet systematic field diagnostic criteria and a unified geomechanical framework remain elusive. Methods Integrating field emergency surveys, high-resolution remote sensing image interpretation, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry, and borehole–trench investigations with regional geological and hydrogeological context, this study systematically characterizes the spatial distribution and controlling mechanisms of large-scale surface deformation triggered by the 7 January 2025 MS 6.8 Dingri, Tibet earthquake. Results Our results show that the extensive surface deformation along the eastern shore of Dengmecuo Lake to the Pengqu River is dominated by liquefaction-induced lateral spreading rather than coseismic tectonic surface rupture; small-scale coseismic surface ruptures occur locally along the eastern lake shore; and north of Nixiacuo, coseismic surface rupture predominates, with superimposed liquefaction deformation. The spatial extent of liquefaction-induced lateral spreading is governed by two topographic configurations: free-face conditions in river valleys, and gently sloping ground on low-gradient alluvial–lacustrine plains. Earthquake-induced liquefaction substantially reduces the shear strength of water-saturated sandy sediments and, driven by the combined effects of seismic inertia and gravity, triggers lateral spreading that generates lateral compressive forces and horizontal displacement. At the trailing edge of the deformation zone, tensional ground cracks and graben-like subsidence develop, whereas the leading edge is characterized by pressure ridges and shallow thrust structures formed by lateral compression. Tensile fissures generated by lateral spreading further provide conduits for the upward injection of liquefied sand from depth, giving rise to abundant sand volcanoes. The systematic coexistence of trailing-edge extension, leading-edge compression, and sand volcanoes constitutes a diagnostic deformation assemblage of liquefaction-induced lateral spreading, which is fundamentally distinct in geometry and kinematics from tectonic coseismic surface ruptures. The development of liquefaction deformation is jointly controlled by seismic intensity, micro-topography, the spatial distribution of liquefiable sand layers, and the depth of the shallow groundwater table. Importantly, lateral spreading can impose additional displacement onto active fault zones, and compressional liquefaction deformation may overprint fault traces, systematically biasing the identification of the geometry and kinematics of coseismic surface ruptures. Accordingly, we propose three field criteria for identifying liquefaction-induced deformation: (1) macroscopic plastic flow or fluid-like deformation features; (2) highly consistent deformation patterns along watercourses across both fault and non-fault zones under comparable depositional conditions; and (3) systematic spatial association with liquefaction indicators such as sand volcanoes. Conclusions We conclude that the large-scale deformation triggered by the 2025 Dingri earthquake should not be classified as coseismic surface rupture; rather, trailing-edge extension, leading-edge compression, and sand boils together constitute a unified lateral spreading system. Liquefaction-induced deformation exerts a pronounced overprinting effect on coseismic surface ruptures, and rigorously distinguishing the two in liquefaction-prone seismotectonic settings is essential for accurately assessing fault activity. [Significance] This study provides the first systematic mechanistic framework for liquefaction-induced large-scale deformation associated with the Dingri earthquake, and the field criteria and conceptual model established herein offer a scientific basis for seismic hazard assessment, post-earthquake reconstruction, and major engineering siting in the southern Tibetan rift system. -
图 1 藏南裂谷构造简图（据高扬等，2025修改）
COR—错那−沃卡裂谷；YGR—亚东−谷露裂谷；DXR—定结−申扎裂谷；GTR—岗嘎−当惹雍错裂谷；NCR—聂拉木−措勤裂谷；ZTR—仲巴−塔若错裂谷；JGR—曲江藏布−改则裂谷；BWR—普兰−文布当桑裂谷；BCF—崩错断裂；GCF—格仁错断裂；KF—喀喇昆仑断裂；XF—鲜水河断裂；JF—嘉黎断裂；ATF—阿尔金断裂；MFT—主前锋逆冲断裂
Figure 1. Simplified tectonic diagram of the southern Tibet Rift Valley (modified after Gao et al., 2025)
COR—Cona–Oiga Rift; YGR—Yadong–Gulu Rift; DXR—Dinggye–Xainza Rift; GTR—Gangga–Tangra Yumco Rift; NCR—Nyalam–Coqen Rift; ZTR—Zhongba–Taro Co Rift; JGR—Jiangqu Zangbo–Gerze Rift; BWR—Burang–Wenbudangsang Rift; BCF—Beng Co Fault; GCF—Gyaring Co Fault; KF—Karakorum Fault; XF—Xianshuihe Fault; JF—Jiali Fault; ATF—Altyn Tagh Fault; MFT—Main Frontal Thrust
图 2 定日地震区域地震构造背景图及砂层沉积特征
a—定日地震区域地震构造背景；b—登么错湖东岸砂层沉积特征；c—砂层粒度特征
Figure 2. Regional seismic tectonic background and sedimentary characteristics of sand layers of the Dingri earthquake
(a) Seismotectonic background of the Dingri earthquake region; (b) Sedimentary characteristics of the sand layer on the east shore of Dengmecuo Lake; (c) Sand particle size characteristics
图 3 定日地震震区液化变形空间分布
DEM渐变色系代表高程变化，绿色系对应低地势区域，红棕色系代表高地势区域a—定日地震震区液化变形空间分布特征；b—登么错断裂北段同震地表破裂及液化变形无人机低空摄影DEM及素描；c—登么错湖东岸液化变形无人机低空摄影DEM及素描；d—登么错湖东岸南段液化变形无人机低空摄影DEM及素描；e—登么错河谷液化变形无人机低空摄影影像及素描
Figure 3. Spatial distribution of liquefaction deformation induced by the Dingri earthquake
(a) Spatial distribution characteristics of liquefaction deformation in the Dingri earthquake area; (b) UAV-based DEM and sketch of coseismic surface rupture and liquefaction deformation in the northern segment of the Dengmecuo Fault; (c) UAV-based DEM and sketch of liquefaction deformation on the eastern shore of Dengmecuo Lake; (d) UAV-based DEM and sketch of liquefaction deformation in the southern segment of the eastern shore of Dengmecuo Lake; (e) UAV photographs of liquefaction deformation in the Dengmecuo Valley and its sketchThe DEM color gradient represents elevation variation: green for low-relief zones, reddish-brown for high-relief terrain.
图 4 定日地震震区液化变形构造空间分布
Figure 4. Spatial distribution of liquefaction deformation induced by Dingri earthquake
图 5 登么错湖东岸地震液化变形特征
a—登么错湖东岸液化变形区无人机低空摄影DEM（液化变形空间展布与高程变化一致）；b—液化变形区伸展变形−挤压变形共存特征；c—液化变形区所在地形地貌特征；d—伸展变形宏观特征；e—伸展变形局部特征；f—挤压垄；g—薄皮对折构造；h—逆冲构造宏观特征；i—逆冲构造局部特征；j—挤压缩短区外缘的砂土液化特征；k—单个沙火山特征
Figure 5. Characteristics of earthquake-induced liquefaction deformation on the east shore of Dengmecuo Lake
(a) UAV low-altitude photogrammetric DEM of the liquefaction deformation zone on the eastern shore of Dengmecuo Lake (the DEM color scheme represents elevation variation, and the spatial distribution of liquefaction deformation is consistent with this variation); (b) Coexistence of extensional and compressional deformation features in the liquefaction deformation zone; (c) Topographic and geomorphic characteristics of the liquefaction deformation zone; (d) Macroscopic features of extensional deformation; (e) Local features of extensional deformation; (f) Compressional ridge; (g) Thin-skinned fold structure; (h) Macroscopic features of thrust structures; (i) Local features of thrust structures; (j) Sand liquefaction features at the outer margin of the compressional shortening zone; (k) Characteristics of an individual sand volcano
图 6 登么错河与朋曲河交汇处地震液化变形特征
a—登么错河与朋曲河交汇处震后遥感影像（黄色箭头指示了河谷边坡地带的伸展变形）；b—登么错河沿岸伸展变形；c—登么错河河床上的挤压垄；d—登么错河谷沿线的砂土液化；e—朋曲河沿线的伸展变形与砂土液化现象（近EW向展布）
Figure 6. Characteristics of earthquake-induced liquefaction deformation at the confluence of Dengmecuo River and Pengqu River
(a) Post-earthquake remote sensing image of the confluence of the Dengmecuo River and Pengqu River (yellow arrows indicate extensional deformation along the valley slope zones); (b) Extensional deformation along the banks of the Dengmecuo River; (c) Compressional ridges on the riverbed of the Dengmecuo River; (d) Sand liquefaction along the Dengmecuo River valley; (e) Extensional deformation and sand liquefaction phenomena along the Pengqu River (distributed in a nearly EW orientation)
图 7 登么错河谷地震砂土液化特征
a—登么错河谷点状喷出的沙火山；b—线性展布的沙火山；c—沿伸展变形带线性喷出的沙火山；d—局部线性喷出的沙火山；e—登么错河谷液化变形区DMCZK4钻孔揭示的地层结构及岩芯照片
Figure 7. Characteristics of earthquake-induced sand liquefaction in the Dengmecuo River Valley
(a) Pointedly distributed sand volcanoes in the Dengmecuo River valley; (b) Linearly distributed sand volcanoes; (c) Sand volcanoes linearly erupted along the extensional deformation zone; (d) Locally linearly erupted sand volcanoes; (e) Stratigraphic sequence and core photographs revealed by the DMCZK4 borehole in the liquefaction deformation zone of the Dengmecuo River valley
图 8 尼辖错−空摸错一带的地震液化变形特征
a—尼辖错北地表破裂无人机低空摄影DEM；b—同震地表破裂带附近的液化变形特征；c—断层上盘成片展布的沙火山；d—线性展布的沙火山；e—单个发育的沙火山；f—地表破裂带上的左旋走滑运动特征；g—断层上盘滑塌体右前方的左旋走滑特征；h—滑塌体左前方的右旋走滑特征
Figure 8. Characteristics of earthquake-induced liquefaction deformation in the Nixiacuo-Kongmecuo area
(a) UAV-based Low-altitude photogrammetric DEM of surface ruptures north of Nixiacuo; (b) Liquefaction and deformation features near the coseismic surface rupture zone; (c) Sand volcanoes distributed in patches on the hanging wall of the fault; (d) Linearly distributed sand volcanoes; (e) An individually developed sand volcano; (f) Left-lateral strike-slip movement characteristics along the surface rupture zone; (g) Left-lateral strike-slip features at the right front of the landslide mass on the hanging wall of the fault; (h) Right-lateral strike-slip features at the left front of the landslide mass
图 9 朋曲河北岸地震液化变形特征
a—朋曲河北岸液化变形无人机低空摄影DEM；b—伸展变形宏观特征；c—伸展变形带后缘的垂向滑动面；d—挤压垄；e—点状喷出的沙火山；f—沿地裂缝呈线性喷出的沙火山；g—公路地面遭受推挤变形
Figure 9. Characteristics of earthquake-induced liquefaction deformation on the north shore of the Pengqu River
(a) UAV-based low-altitude photogrammetric DEM of liquefaction and deformation on the north shore of the Pengqu River; (b) Macroscopic characteristics of extensional deformation; (c) Vertical slip surface at the rear margin of the extensional deformation zone; (d) Compressional ridge; (e) Point-source erupted sand volcanoes; (f) Linearly erupted sand volcanoes along ground fissures; (g) Compression deformation of the road surface
图 10 钻孔及探槽揭示的朋曲河北岸地层结构及砂土液化特征
a—钻孔揭示的朋曲河北岸未发生液化变形地区的地层结构与岩性特征；b—探槽揭示的朋曲河北岸T1阶地液化变形区的地层特征及沙火山与液化层的关系；c—探槽揭示的沙火山结构特征；d—液化层的岩性及粒度特征
Figure 10. Stratigraphic structure and sand liquefaction characteristics of the north shore of the Pengqu River revealed by drilling and trenching
(a) Stratigraphic structure and lithological characteristics of the non-liquefaction deformation area on the north shore of the Pengqu River revealed by boreholes; (b) Stratigraphic characteristics of the liquefaction deformation zone on the T1 terrace of the north shore of the Pengqu River and the relationship between sand volcanoes and liquefied layers revealed by trenches; (c) Structural characteristics of sand volcanoes revealed by trenches; (d) Lithological and grain size characteristics of the liquefied layer
图 11 地震液化诱发次生灾害特征
a—登么错湖东岸地表塌陷破坏建筑物；b—液化变形造成朋曲河北岸嘎定线路基大面积破坏；c—液化变形破坏跨登么错河谷的交通主干道；d—尼辖错水库坝基差异性沉降；e—尼辖错水库坝基破裂；f—长所拉昂水库坝基破裂
Figure 11. Characteristics of secondary disasters induced by earthquake liquefaction
(a) Surface subsidence damaging buildings on the eastern shore of Dengmecuo Lake; (b) Large-scale damage to the Gading route subgrade on the north bank of the Pengqu River caused by liquefaction deformation; (c) Liquefaction deformation damaging the main traffic artery across the Dengmecuo River Valley; (d) Differential settlement of the dam foundation of Nixiacuo reservoir; (e) Dam foundation rupture of Nixiacuo reservoir; (f) Dam foundation rupture of Changsuo La’ang reservoir
图 12 定日地震诱发液化大变形模式
a—登么错河—朋曲河沿线临空场液化大变形模式；b—登么错湖东岸缓倾斜场液化大变形模式
Figure 12. Patterns of deformation induced by liquefaction of the Dingri earthquake
(a) Liquefaction-induced large deformation model under free-face conditions along Dengmecuo River and Pengqu River; (b) Liquefaction-induced large deformation model under gently sloping ground conditions along the eastern shore of Dengmecuo Lake
表 1 定结−申扎裂谷南部主要活动断层信息
Table 1. Information on major active faults in the southern part of the Dinggye–Xainza Rift Valley
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