The evolutionary process of Cenozoic Asian monsoon
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摘要: 陆地和海洋热容量差异会引起风向和降水发生季节性反转形成季风气候。亚洲是世界上季风气候最典型的区域，同时也有最多的受季风气候影响的人口。季风带来的强降水容易诱发多种次生灾害，严重影响着区域内人类社会生产、居住的安全，因而认识亚洲季风的形成过程至关重要。利用将古论今的地学思想，文章旨在阐述亚洲季风的组成，列举影响亚洲季风形成、演化的主要因素，总结亚洲关键地点的沉积记录显示的南亚季风和东亚季风的演化期次。结果表明，在古近纪，印度板块与亚洲大陆南缘发生碰撞，改变了亚洲的海陆分布，导致青藏高原发生初始隆升，南亚和东亚均出现季风性气候。但此时的东亚地区依然主要受行星风系的控制，东亚季风处于孕育阶段，仅呈条带状局部分布在华南板块的南缘，而南亚季风的覆盖面积相对广泛。这可能主要是因为东亚地区的边缘海打开时间明显要晚于南亚地区海陆分布出现的时间。但随着青藏高原在中新世整体隆升并接近现今的海拔高度，亚洲季风全面进入增强阶段，强烈影响区域内的地质演化过程。自中新世中期以来，由于受控于青藏高原隆升、南北极冰盖的发育，亚洲季风经历了多期次的稳定发展阶段。研究成果为科学合理利用季风开展亚洲系统地球科学研究提供了参考。Abstract:
Objective The formation of monsoon climates is attributed to the seasonal reversal of wind direction and precipitation caused by the difference in thermal capacity between land and ocean. Asia is recognized as the most prominent region globally, with monsoon climates, that affect the largest population. The heavy rainfall accompanying monsoons can result in various secondary disasters, substatially jeopardizing human safety and productivity in the region. Consequently, comprehending the formation process of the Asian monsoon holds paramount importance. Methods This study aim to employ geological concepts to establish a connection between the past and present, providing an overview of the components of Asian monsoons, identifying the primary factors influencing their formation and evolution, and summarizing research progress on the South Asian and East Asian monsoons based on sediment records from key Asian locations. Results The findings indicate that during the Cenozoic, the collision between the Indian Plate and the southern margin of the Asian continent altered the distribution of land and sea in Asia. Consequently, the Tibetan Plateau experienced initial uplift, contributing to the emergence of monsoon climates in South Asia and East Asia. However, at this stage, the East Asian region was still primarily influenced by the planetary wind system, and the East Asian monsoon was in its early stages, predominantly restricted to the southern margin of the South China Plate in a localized manner. In contrast, the South Asian Monsoon covered a relatively extensive area. This discrepancy may be attributed to the delayed opening of marginal seas in the East Asian region compared to the relatively earlier occurrence of land and sea distribution in South Asia. However, as the Tibetan Plateau continued to uplift and approach its current altitude during the middle to late Cenozoic, the Asian monsoon entered a strengthening phase, notably impacting regional geological evolution processes. Since the middle to late Cenozoic, the development of the North and South Polar ice caps and the upliftment of the Tibetan Plateau have controlled the Asian monsoon, leading it to undergo multiple stable periods of development. Conclusion The development and evolution of the East Asian and South Asian monsoons are mainly driven by the distribution of sea and land in the Asia, the upliftment of the Tibetan Plateau and the global climate change during the Cenozoic. Significance These findings provide valuable insights into the scientific and rational utilization of the Asian monsoon for conducting systematic Earth science research in Asia. -
Key words:
- Asian Monsoon /
- East Asian Monsoon /
- Tibetan Plateau /
- South Asian Monsoon /
- Cenozoic
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图 1 亚洲季风组成分布图（据林旭等，2023修改）
Figure 1. Composition distribution map of Asian monsoon (modified after Lin et al., 2023)
图 2 亚洲季风形成图
a—亚洲夏季风形成过程图；b—亚洲冬季风形成过程图
Figure 2. The formation map of Asian monsoon
(a) Map showing the formation process of the Asian summer monsoon; (b) Map showing the formation process of the Asian winter monsoon
图 3 新生代亚洲海陆分布图
a—始新世；b—渐新世；c—中新世；d—上新世
Figure 3. Cenozoic marine and land distribution map in Asia
(a) Eocene; (b) Oligocene; (c) Miocene; (d) Pliocene
图 4 新生代青藏高原演化过程图（据Su et al.，2019修改）
a—古新世—始新世；b—渐新世；c—中新世；d—现今
Figure 4. Cenozoic evolutionary process diagram of the Tibetan Plateau (modified after Su et al.，2019)
(a) Paleocene-Eocene; (b) Oligocene; (c) Miocene ; (d) Present day
图 5 新生代气候变化特征
a—新生代全球深海氧同位素曲线（据Zachos et al.，2001修改）；b—古新世干旱气候下形成的盐湖；c—始新世干燥气候形成的红层；d—中新世连续性南极冰盖出现；e—上新世晚期—更新世连续性北极冰盖出现
Figure 5. Characteristics of Cenozoic climate change
(a) Cenozoic global deep-sea oxygen isotope curve (modified after Zachos et al.，2001); (b) Salt lakes formed in the arid climate of the Paleocene; (c) The red layer formed in the dry climate of the Eocene; (d) The emergence of a continuous Antarctic ice sheet during the Miocene; (e) The late Pliocene-Pleistocene continuous Arctic ice sheet appeared
图 6 亚洲季风研究结果位置分布图
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Figure 6. Location distribution of research results of the Asian monsoon
图 7 新生代南亚和东亚季风演化过程与全球海陆分布、青藏高原隆升和全球气候变化的对应关系（图中数字与图6的位置一一对应，蓝色矩形框的长度代表时间跨度）
Figure 7. Correspondence between the evolution of the Cenozoic South Asian and East Asian monsoons and the global land-sea distribution, the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, and global climate change (The numbers in the figure correspond to the positions in Figure 6; the length of the blue rectangular box represents the time)
图 8 新生代东亚气候演变过程图（据Guo et al.，2008修改）
a—始新世气候格局分布图；b—中新世气候格局分布图
Figure 8. Climate evolution in East Asia during the Cenozoic era (modified after Guo et al., 2008)
(a) Eocene climate pattern distribution map; (b) Miocene climate pattern distribution map
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