Tectonic characteristics and numerical simulation analysis of an arcuate structural belt：A case study of the middle and southern segments of the Red River fault
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摘要: 以红河断裂中南段为主体的滇东南弧形构造带作为川滇地块的西南边界和向南南东滑移的前端，现今的运动性质是以挤压为主的逆走滑运动还是以拉张为主的正走滑运动仍存在争议，这与青藏高原东南缘周围复杂的应力−应变模式有着强烈的关联。为进一步研究滇东南弧形构造带的运动学特征及成因，结合野外地质调查及已有研究成果，建立三维地质模型进行有限差分数值模拟，研究结果表明：红河断裂中南段沿线大量地质剖面显示正走滑运动性质，揭示出现今该区域主要受拉张−剪切应力作用的控制；青藏高原东南缘现今的构造变形及地貌演化主要受控于岩石圈物质的东南向移动以及苏门答腊−爪哇俯冲带下发生的弧后拉张、板块回撤2个不同力源的共同作用，同时，下地壳流的存在会显著影响青藏高原东南缘的构造变形尺度，在滇东南弧形构造带中，弧后拉张及板块回撤起着更为显著的控制作用；滇东南弧形构造带早期初始弯曲形态的形成主要归因于岩石圈物质东南向移动的影响及小江断裂左旋走滑的牵引，并在先存构造几何形态的限制和弧后拉张及板块回撤的控制下产生持续形变。研究结果有助于理解滇东南弧形构造带现今的活动特征及成因，并为青藏高原东南缘构造演化研究提供定量化分析的参考和理论依据。Abstract:
Objective The southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt, with the central and southern segments of the Red River fault as its main body, serves as the southwestern boundary of the Sichuan-Yunnan block and the forefront of its south-southeastward movement. However, there is still controversy as to whether its current motion is primarily characterized by transpression or transtension. This debate is strongly correlated with the complex stress-strain patterns surrounding the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Clarification of the kinematic characteristics and genesis of the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt will help to understand the regional tectonic evolution. Methods This study utilized the interpretation of remote sensing images and geological field surveys to identify evidence for late Quaternary tectonic activity in the central and southern segments of the Red River fault. A three-dimensional (3D) geological model tailored to the actual characteristics of the region was established. It considers the influence of lower crustal flow and includes finite-difference numerical simulations with different velocity boundary conditions set at 26.5°N. Results The study reveals: (1) Numerous geomorphic features and fault profiles in the central and southern segments of the Red River fault indicate that most of the faults along the line are predominantly high-angle, northwest-striking with a complex fault rock development. The presence of structural wedges and infill of overlying material has been observed in several typical outcrops. Additionally, there are significant undulations in the lower part of the overlying strata on both sides of the fault. (2) The numerical simulations show that the influence of the far-field stress on the horizontal and vertical deformation of the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is quite different on both sides of 26.5°N, and the deformation is further enhanced by the presence of lower crustal flow. (3) Numerical simulations of velocity fields, maximum shear strain rates, and maximum principal stresses demonstrate that surface motion trajectories, velocity distributions, stress conditions, and deformation accumulation differ among different models for the arcuate structural belt area; the presence of lower crustal flow promotes deformation accumulation and makes the magnitude of the velocity field closer to that of the current GPS horizontal velocity field. Conclusion (1) The numerous geological profiles along the central and southern segments of the Red River fault reveal predominantly normal-strike-slip movement, indicating that the region is currently dominated by the effects of transtension; (2) Current tectonic deformation and landscape evolution in the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are mainly controlled by two different force sources: one is the southeastward movement of material, and the other is the arc-parallel extension and slab rollback beneath the Sunda-Java subduction zone. The presence of lower crustal flow influencess the scale of tectonic deformation in the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. In the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt, arc-parallel extension and slab retreat play a more significant controlling role; (3) The initial curved shape of the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt is mainly attributed to the influence of material migration towards the southeast and the Xiaojiang sinistral strike-slip fault. Under the constraints of pre-existing structural fabrics and the control of arc-parallel extension and slab retreat, it has led to continuous deformation. Significance The research contributes to the understanding of the current activity of the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt and the causes of this activity. It provides a quantitative analysis reference and theoretical basis for the study of the tectonic evolution of the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. -
图 1 滇东南弧形构造带主要断裂分布及地貌影像图
a—滇东南弧形构造带位置（图中地块划分根据张培震等，2003修改）；b—滇东南弧形构造带断裂分布及沿线水平GPS速度场（图中GPS水平速度场数据为相对华南板块的GPS水平速度场，通过地表断裂迹线及推断未偏转的断裂迹线插值获取；Gan et al.，2022）；c—滇东南弧形构造带地貌影像图（来自天地图https://vgimap.tianditu.gov.cn/）
Figure 1. Distribution of major faults and topographic imagery, southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt
(a) Location of the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt (block division based on Zhang et al., 2003); (b) Distribution of faults in the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt and the horizontal GPS velocity field along the fault (the horizontal GPS velocity field is relative to the South China Plate; it is obtained by interpolating through surface fault traces and inferred undeflected fault traces; Gan et al., 2022); (c) Geomorphological imagery of the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt ( from https://vgimap.tianditu.gov.cn/ )
图 2 红河断裂中南段典型露头和遥感影像解译（影像均来源天地图
https://vgimap.tianditu.gov.cn/ ）a—嘎洒收费站西北侧断层；b—嘎洒收费站西北侧断层擦痕；c—马鹿洞东南侧断层；d—大寨西北侧断层；e—元阳县城南阿土断层；f—元阳县城南阿土断层破碎带细节；g—大寨西北侧大黑公山脊及冲沟右旋位错遥感影像；h—元阳县城南阿土龙岔河右旋位错遥感影像
Figure 2. Typical outcrops and remote sensing image interpretation, middle and southern segments of the Red River fault zone ( remote sensing images from Tianditu
https://vgimap.tianditu.gov.cn/ )(a) Fault to the northwest of Gasa toll station; (b) Scratches on the fault to the northwest of Gasa toll station; (c) Fault to the southeast of Maludong; (d) Fault to the northwest of Dazhai; (e) Fault to the south of Yuanyang County Atu area; (f) Details of the fracture zone of the fault to the south of Yuanyang County Atu area; (g) Remote sensing image of the dextral dislocation of a ridge and gully at Dazhai, northwest of Daheigong; (h) Remote sensing image of the dextral dislocation of the Atu Longcha River in the south of Yuanyang County
图 3 数值模拟研究区域
F1—红河断裂；F2—鲜水河−安宁河−则木河−小江断裂系统；F3—龙门山断裂；F4—奠边府断裂；F5—丽江小金河断裂a—青藏高原东南缘GPS水平速度场（数据来自Gan et al.，2022；图中蓝色圆点为拟合的相对华南地块旋转中心）；b—地质模型中主要断裂格架
Figure 3. Study area of the numerical simulation
(a) Horizontal GPS velocity field of the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (data are from Gan et al., 2022; The blue dots in the figure denote the fitted rotation center relative to the South China Block); (b) The primary fault framework in the geological model F1: Red River Fault; F2: Xianshui River-Anning River-Zemu River-Xiaojiang Fault System; F3: Longmenshan Fault; F4: Dianbianfu Fault, F5: Lijiang-Xiaojinhe Fault
图 4 研究区域三维地质模型
a—物理属性分组；b—主要活动地块分组
Figure 4. Three-dimensional (3D) geological model of the study area
(a) Grouping by physical properties; (b) Grouping by major active blocks
图 5 模型速度边界条件
F1—红河断裂；F2—鲜水河−安宁河−则木河−小江断裂系统；F3—龙门山断裂；F5—丽江小金河断裂；F6—实皆断裂；图b、c、d中不同色块分别对应被赋予不同物理参数的构造单元，其中箭头指向指示了速度矢量的方向，箭头颜色和长度指示边界速度大小，具体数值对应图左侧的色标，单位为m/sa—相对于华南地块速度场旋转中心进行切向和径向分量投影（朱良玉, 2020）；b—模型一速度边界条件；c—模型二速度边界条件；d—模型三速度边界条件
Figure 5. Velocity boundary conditions of the model
(a) Projections of the tangential and radial components relative to the rotation center of the velocity field of the South China Block (Zhu, 2020); (b) Velocity boundary condition of Model 1; (c) Velocity boundary condition of Model 2; (d) Velocity boundary condition of Model 3F1: Red River Fault; F2: Xianshuihe-Anninghe-Zemuhe-Xiaojiang Fault System; F3: Longmenshan Fault; F5: Lijiang-Xiaojinhe Fault; F6: Sagaing Fault In figures b, c, and d, the different colors of the blocks correspond to tectonic units with different physical parameters assigned. The arrows point ate the velocity vector directions. Arrow color and length indicate the magnitude of the boundary velocity. The specific values correspond to the color bar on the left of the figure, with units in m/s.
图 6 三维地质模型数值模拟x、y、z轴位移云图（不考虑下地壳流）
位移大小及方向对应每个云图左上角的色标：正值表示沿x、y、z方向位移；负值表示沿x、y、z反方向位移，具体位移大小为该颜色对应的绝对值，单位为ma、b、c—模型一；d、e、f—模型二；g、h、i—模型三
Figure 6. Contour maps for numerical geological 3D simulations ( no lower crustal flow ) of x, y, and z axis displacement
(a), (b), (c) Model 1; (d), (e), (f) Model 2; (g), (h), (i) Model 3 Displacement magnitudes and directions are given as absolute values in meters corresponding to the color bar in the top left corner of each contour map: positive values indicate displacement along the x, y, z direction; negative values indicate displacement along the opposite x, y, z direction.
图 7 三维地质模型数值模拟x、y、z轴位移云图（考虑下地壳流）
位移大小及方向对应每个云图左上角的色标：正值表示沿x、y、z方向位移；负值表示沿x、y、z反方向位移；具体位移大小为该颜色对应的绝对值，单位为ma、d、g—模型一；b、e、h—模型二；c、f、I—模型三
Figure 7. Contour maps for numerical geological 3D simulations ( including lower crustal flow ) of x, y, and z axis displacement
(a), (d), (g) Model 1; (b), (e), (h) Model 2; (c), (f), (i) Model 3Displacement magnitudes and directions are given as absolute values in meters corresponding to the color bar in the top left corner of each contour map: positive values indicate displacement along the x, y, z direction; negative values indicate displacement along the opposite x, y, z direction.
图 8 三维地质模型数值模拟速度矢量云图
箭头颜色和长度指示速度大小，具体数值对应每个云图左上角的色标，单位为m/s；箭头指向指示了速度矢量的方向a—模型一；b—模型二；c—模型三；d—模型四；e—模型五；f—模型六
Figure 8. Contour maps for numerical geological 3D simulations of velocity vectors
(a) Model 1; (b) Model 2; (c) Model 3; (d) Model 4; (e) Model 5; (f) Model 6Arrow colors and lengths indicate the velocity magnitude; specific values correspond to the color bar in the upper left corner of each cloud diagram; units are in m/s; arrows point to the direction of the velocity vectors.
图 9 三维地质模型数值模拟最大剪切应变率及最大主应力云图
云图中叠加了对应的应力张量，用于指示最大、最小和中间主应力的方向及大小，其中g—l图例中提取了各主轴优势方向，并通过不同颜色进行区分（红色指示最大主应力轴，蓝色指示最小主应力轴，绿色指示中间主应力轴）a—f—6个模型近地表最大剪切应变率云图（最大剪切应变率的大小及剪切方向对应每个云图左侧的色标：正值表示顺时针方向；负值表示逆时针方向，最大剪切应变率具体数值为该颜色对应的绝对值，单位为s−1）；g—l—6个模型近地表最大主应力云图（最大主应力的大小及特性对应每个云图左侧的色标：正值表示最大主应力方向为拉张；负值表示最大主应力方向为挤压，最大主应力具体数值为该颜色对应的绝对值，单位为Pa）
Figure 9. Contour maps for numerical geological 3D simulations of maximum shear strain rate and maximum principal stress
(a—f) Near-surface maximum shear strain rate contours of the six models (the magnitude and shear direction of the maximum shear strain rate are absolute values in s−1 and correspond to the color bar on the left side of each contour map: positive values indicate clockwise direction; negative values indicate counterclockwise direction); (g—l) near-surface maximum principal stress contours of the six models ( the magnitude and characteristics of the maximum principal stress are absolute values in Pa and correspond to the color bar on the left side of each contour map: positive values indicate tension in the direction of the maximum principal stress; negative values indicate compression in the direction of the maximum principal stress)The contour maps are superimposed with the corresponding stress tensors to indicate the direction and magnitude of the maximum, minimum, and intermediate principal stresses. In the legend from g to l, the dominant directions of each principal axis are extracted and distinguished by different colors (red indicates the maximum principal stress axis, blue indicates the minimum principal stress axis, and green indicates the intermediate principal stress axis).
图 10 滇东南弧形构造形成与演化
a—受走滑断层控制的逆冲构造（修改自Macedo and Marshak，1999）；b、d、f—滇东南弧形构造演化（图中浅蓝色近似地形等高线参考自Schoenbohm et al.，2006a；ELIP表示峨眉山大火成岩省的内区，范围圈定参考Xu et al.，2004）；c—滑移线场模式（修改自Tapponnier and Molnar，1976，其中三角状刚性冲头用于类比印度板块，半无限刚塑性介质用于类比亚洲大陆，滑移线则指示了材料中的最大剪切应力和变形的位置）；e—红河断裂中南段右旋走滑拉张−剪切变形示意图
Figure 10. Formation and evolution of the southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt
(a) Thrust structures controlled by a strike-slip fault (modified from Macedo and Marshark, 1999); (b), (d), (f) The evolution of southeast Yunnan Arcuate Structural Belt (the light blue areas are approximate topographic contours from Schoenbohm et al., 2006a; ELIP represents the inner zone of the Emeishan large igneous province, and its range is delineated with reference to Xu et al., 2004); (c) Slip-line field model (modified from Tapponnier and Molnar，1976, the triangular rigid punch is used to analogize the Indian Plate, the semi-infinite rigid-plastic medium is used to analogize the Asian Continent, and the slip lines indicate the locations of maximum shear stress and deformation in the material); (e) Schematic diagram of dextral strike-slip and transtension in the central and southern segments of the Red River fault
表 1 各构造单元（活动地块）的介质属性
Table 1. Material properties of each tectonic unit
地块/分层 深度/km P波速度/
（km/s)S波速度/
（km/s)密度/
（g/m3)泊松比 杨氏模量/
GPa剪切模量/
GPa黏滞系数/
（Pa·s)川滇
地块上地壳 16.1～27.0 6.00～6.10 3.52～3.55 2.72～2.74 0.238～0.244 83.419～85.908 33.702～34.531 1×1022～3×1022 下地壳 38.0～59.9 6.30～7.00 3.65～3.99 2.78～2.95 0.241～0.259 92.396～118.291 37.037～46.964 3×1020～6×1020 岩石圈
地幔100.0 8.02～8.12 4.46～4.51 3.28～3.34 0.276～0.277 168.045～173.501 65.841～67.936 8×1020～4×1021 滇南
地块上地壳 14.59～17.38 6.00～6.10 3.52～3.55 2.72～2.74 0.238～0.244 83.419～85.908 33.702～34.531 5×1021 下地壳 30.0～41.7 6.30～7.00 3.65～3.99 2.78～2.95 0.247～0.259 92.396～118.291 37.037～46.964 8×1020 岩石圈
地幔100.0 7.90～7.94 4.40～4.42 3.26～3.37 0.275～0.276 169.431～177.461 63.114～64.079 2×1020 华南
地块上地壳 21.02～22.80 6.00～6.10 3.52～3.55 2.72～2.74 0.238～0.244 83.419～85.908 33.702～34.531 1×1023 下地壳 38.0～46.8 6.30～7.00 3.65～3.99 2.78～2.95 0.247～0.259 92.396～118.291 37.037～46.964 1×1022 岩石圈
地幔100.0 8.12～8.13 4.50～4.51 3.34～3.35 0.277～0.278 173.501～174.128 67.936～68.139 5×1021 巴颜喀
拉地块上地壳 22.89～27.54 6.00～6.10 3.52～3.55 2.72～2.74 0.238～0.244 83.419～85.908 33.702～34.531 1×1022 下地壳 53.2～59.0 6.30～7.00 3.65～3.99 2.78～2.95 0.241～0.259 92.396～118.291 37.037～46.964 1×1020 岩石圈
地幔100.0 7.96～8.01 4.43～4.45 3.28～3.30 0.276～0.277 164.226～166.871 64.370～65.348 9×1020 
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表 2 模型边界条件设置方案
Table 2. Boundary condition setting of the model
模型名称 模型一 模型二 模型三 模型四 模型五 模型六 川滇地块速度边界 施加 未施加 施加 施加 未施加 施加 滇南地块速度边界 未施加 施加 施加 未施加 施加 施加 华南地块速度边界 施加 施加 施加 施加 施加 施加 巴颜喀拉地块速度边界 施加 未施加 施加 施加 未施加 施加 下地壳流影响 未考虑 未考虑 未考虑 考虑 考虑 考虑
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