Geomechanical implications of joints and veins
doi: 10.12090/j.issn.1006-6616.2025120
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摘要: 文章综合梳理了近30年来关于岩石节理与岩脉研究的若干重要进展，强调了其在古构造应力重建中的独特意义。研究表明，共轭剪节理不仅可用于确定脆性岩石中有效主应力的方向，还能反映形成时显著的构造差应力。剥蚀节理与柱状节理分别代表不同的应力状态，其中柱状节理甚至可用于推算岩石的抗张强度。互层岩层中的张节理揭示了层间变形在应力传递中的关键作用，而节理间距与层厚之间的非线性关系则为估算岩层力学参数提供了新途径。梯状正交节理不仅反映特定的应力状态，还经风化与侵蚀塑造出独特的地貌景观。另一方面，岩脉作为矿物充填后的节理，不仅是应变量估算的有效载体，其间距−层厚关系更能定量揭示矿物沉淀对岩石抗张强度恢复的程度。岩层中缺乏梯状正交岩脉，正是这种强度恢复的直接证据。综上所述，节理与岩脉并非单纯的脆性破裂产物，而是构造应力场演化的记录者和岩石力学属性的量化载体。通过对其研究，不仅能够更准确地限定古应力场的方向与强度，还能够深化对岩石在自然应变速率下力学性质的理解。Abstract:
Objective Traditional structural geology textbooks often provide outdated treatments of joints and veins, failing to reflect the significant advances made in the past three decades. This review seeks to address part of this gap by highlighting the significance of barren joints and veins in reconstructing both the directions and magnitudes of geological paleostresses. Conclusion Conjugate shear joints not only indicate the orientation of the three effective principal stresses but also imply differential stresses at least four times greater than the tensile strength of the brittle host rock. Exfoliation joints form under stress states of σ1≈σ2>0>σ3, whereas polygonal columnar joints in sedimentary rocks reflect σ1*>$ 0 $>σ2*=σ3*, allowing the tensile strength of rocks to be estimated. Tensile joints in brittle strong beds interlayered with ductile soft layers are primarily driven by tensile stresses transferred from interfacial shear stresses between the hard and soft layers, with joint saturation mainly controlled by tectonic strain. Under natural strain-rate conditions, the Weibull modulus and tensile strength of the strong layers, as well as the shear-flow strength of the ductile layers, can be inferred from the nonlinear relationship between joint spacing and bed thickness. Ladder-like orthogonal joints, which form under a stress state of σ1*>$ 0 $>σ2*>σ3*, divide strata into blocky units and, after weathering and erosion, give rise to characteristic castle- and tower-like landforms. Veins, as mineral-filled joints, provide spacing and thickness data that allow estimates of layer strain. Moreover, the nonlinear relationship between vein spacing and bed thickness permits quantification of the extent to which mineral precipitation restores the tensile strength of rock beds. The absence of ladder-like orthogonal veins is attributed to this strength recovery. [ Significance ]Collectively, these observations demonstrate the critical role of joints and veins in constraining both the magnitudes and orientations of geological paleostress fields. -
Key words:
- joints /
- veins /
- paleostress /
- brittle deformation /
- mechanical properties
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图 1 顺着垂直节理的侵蚀作用雕塑出Navajo 砂岩地区壮观的地貌
a—c—位于美国犹他州的纪念碑谷
Figure 1. Striking landscapes sculpted by erosion along vertical joints in Navajo Sandstone beds
(a–c) Monument Valley, Utah, USA
图 2 共轭剪节理
a—美国犹他州峡谷地国家公园砂岩中的共轭剪切节理 （Fossen, 2016）；b—美国加利福尼亚州约书亚树国家公园 Split Rock 区砂岩中的共轭剪节理；c—加利福尼亚州优胜美地国家公园花岗岩中的共轭剪节理；d—实验变形岩石样品中形成的共轭剪节理
Figure 2. Conjugate shear joints
(a) Aerial view, Canyonlands National Park, Utah, USA (after Fossen, 2016); (b) In sandstone, Split Rock area, Joshua Tree National Park, California, USA; (c) In granite, Yosemite National Park, California, USA; (d) In an experimental rock specimen
图 3 摩尔圆，表示共轭剪节理（I）与张节理（III）的形成条件
图中摩尔圆 II 表示共轭剪节理形成所需的最小差应力，其推导过程见正文；图中还标出了摩擦定律 τ = τ0 + μσn，其中，σn 和 τ 分别为正应力和剪应力；σ1* 和 σ3* 分别为最大和最小有效主应力。C 表示岩石抗张强度；τ0 为 σn = 0 时岩石的剪切强度（内聚力）；α 为内摩擦角；θ 为共轭剪节理锐角二面角的一半
Figure 3. Mohr diagrams illustrating the conditions for the formation of conjugate shear joints (I) and tensile joints (III)
The minimum differential stress required for the formation of conjugate shear joints, represented by Mohr circle II, is derived in the text. The friction law, τ=τ0+μσn, is also shown. Here, σn and τ are the normal and shear stresses, respectively; σ1* and σ3* are the maximum and minimum effective principal stresses. C represents the tensile strength while τ0 is the shear strength (cohesion) at σn = 0. α denotes the internal friction angle, and θ is half of the acute dihedral angle between the conjugate shear joints.
图 4 美国加利福尼亚州优胜美地国家公园内花岗岩中平行地表的剥蚀节理
a—小比例尺的宏观观察；b—大比例尺的详细观察，花岗岩因剥蚀作用呈现出逐层剥离的特征
Figure 4. Exfoliation joints of granitic rocks conformable to the topographic surface, Yosemite National Park, California, USA
(a) Macroscopic view at a smaller scale; (b) Detailed view at a larger scale. The granite exhibits progressive sheet-like separation due to exfoliation
图 5 多边形柱状节理
a—北爱尔兰巨人堤玄武岩中的柱状节理；b—干旱形成的泥裂；c—火星Gordii Dorsum地区Medusae Fossae 永久冻土中的柱状节理（NASA）；d—加拿大魁北克 Havre-Saint-Pierre 石灰岩中的柱状节理；e—美国亚利桑那州 Vermilion Cliffs 国家纪念区 White Pocket 砂岩中的柱状节理
Figure 5. Columnar joints (a) In basalt at the Giant’s Causeway, Northern Ireland; (b) In desiccated mud; (c) In the Gordii Dorsum region of the Medusae Fossae Formation on Mars (NASA); (d) In limestone at Havre-Saint-Pierre, Québec, Canada; (e) In sandstone at White Pocket, Vermilion Cliffs National Monument, Arizona, USA
图 6 摩尔圆，表示柱状节理的形成条件（圆 I），以及形成后应力释放（圆 II）。多边形节理网络的发育需要出现双轴应力状态（σ1* > 0 > σ2* = σ3*）
Figure 6. Mohr diagrams illustrating the conditions for columnar joint formation (circle I), and the subsequent stress release represented by circle II. The development of a polygonal joint network requires a biaxial stress state (σ1*>0>σ2*=σ3*)
图 7 加拿大魁北克 Humber 构造带杂砂岩中规则分布的空节理（无矿物沉淀与充填）
a—GPS 坐标： 47.23664° N、70.24473° W；b、c—GPS 坐标：48.66334° N、68.07307° W；d—GPS 坐标：49.02436° N、66.92561° W
Figure 7. Typical examples of regularly spaced opening-mode fractures (barren joints) in graywacke beds from the Humber Zone, Quebec, Canada (a) GPS coordinates: 47.23664° N, 70.24473° W; (b) and (c) GPS coordinates: 48.66334° N, 68.07307° W); (d) GPS coordinates: 49.02436° N, 66.92561° W
图 8 节理饱和的两类模式
a—第一类，即使延伸应变增加，节理间距不再减小；b—第二类，随着层厚继续增加，节理间距不再增大
Figure 8. Two types of joint saturation
(a) Type 1 — joint spacing no longer decreases despite increasing elongation strain; (b) Type 2 — joint spacing no longer increases with increasing bed thickness
图 9 加拿大魁北克 Havre-Saint-Pierre 附近层理水平的石灰岩层中的正交节理
a—系统节理 (J1) 产状：190° ∠88°；b—交叉节理 (J2) 产状：277° ∠89°
Figure 9. Typical orthogonal joints in flat-lying limestone beds near Havre-Saint-Pierre, Quebec, Canada
(a) Systematic joints (J1) with an attitude of 190° ∠88°; (b) Cross joints (J2) with an attitude of 277° ∠89°
图 12 加拿大魁北克 Humber 构造带内杂砂岩层中的层控碳酸盐岩脉，岩脉既可呈透镜状也可呈半透镜状
a、b—Anse aux Canons (GPS坐标：49.205352° N，64.926919° W)；c—Grand-Étang (GPS 坐标：49.13882° N，64.74263° W)
Figure 12. Typical stratabound carbonate veins in graywacke beds from the Humber Zone, Quebec, Canada, showing both lenticular and semi-lens–shaped veins.
(a) and (b) Anse aux Canons (GPS coordinates: 49.205352° N，64.926919° W); (c) Grand-Étang (GPS coordinates: 49.13882° N，64.74263° W)
图 10 摩尔圆，表示正交节理形成的概念模型，其中应力释放引起 σ2* 与 σ3* 交换，在新形成的主节理上产生零应力状态
a—主节理开始形成时的应力状态；b—主节理形成后的应力状态，此时横节理开始发育
Figure 10. Mohr diagrams illustrating a conceptual model for the formation of cross joints, in which stress relief induces a swap between σ2* and σ3*, creating a zero-stress state along a newly formed systematic joint
(a) Stress state at the onset of systematic joint formation; (b) Stress state immediately after the joint has formed, during the initiation of cross-joint development
图 11 摩尔圆，表示只有主节理形成却无横节理形成的应力状态
a—主节理形成瞬间的应力状态 σ1* > σ2* > 0 > σ3*；b—主节理形成后的应力状态：σ1* > σ2* > σ3* = 0，从而阻止横节理的发育
Figure 11. Mohr diagrams illustrating the stress states associated with the formation of tensile joints without accompanying cross joint
(a) σ1*>σ2*>0>σ3* at the moment of systematic (J1) joint formation; (b) Stress state immediately after the formation of the systematic joint, in which fracture-induced stress relief produces σ1*>σ2*>σ3*=0, preventing the development of cross joints
图 13 加拿大魁北克省圣劳伦斯河南岸杂砂岩中透镜状和半透镜状方解石脉
a、b—透镜状方解石脉；c—半透镜状方解石脉
Figure 13. Lens-shaped and semi-lens-shaped calcite veins in the graywacke beds on the south bank of the St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Canada
(a) and (b) Lens-shaped calcite veins; (c) Semi-lens-shaped calcite veins
Table 1. Glossary of symbols used in the paper
Symbol Glossary C tensile strength CV coefficient of variation E Young’s modulus Ef Young’s modulus of competent layer g gravitational acceleration Gm shear modulus of incompetent layer J joint k Weibull modulus Pf pressure of fluid s spacing of joints or veins sm maximum joint spacing t thickness of bed t0.5 the layer thickness at which s=0.5sm V vein w thickness of vein z depth α internal friction angle δ strength recovery coefficient ε strain θ half of the dihedral angle between conjugate joints λ pore-fluid factor μ coefficient of friction ν Poisson’s ratio ρ density σ* effective stress σ1 maximum principal stress σ2 middle principal stress σ3 minimum principal stress σn normal stress τ shear stress τ0 cohesion of rock 
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