Mechanism of rockfall coupled with endogenic and exogenic geological processes: A case study in the upper Triassic limestone mines in the Qamdo area, eastern Tibet
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摘要:
石灰石矿山采场崩塌是藏东昌都地区常见的地质灾害类型, 是矿山企业安全生产和铁路工程建设面临的主要地质安全问题之一。文章采用基础地质、构造地质和灾害地质相结合的方法, 通过详实的地质灾害调查, 查明崩塌发育规律, 分析岩体结构面特征, 探讨崩塌灾害的形成机理, 并建立其破坏模式。结果表明: 藏东昌都地区上三叠统石灰石矿山采场崩塌沿区内褶冲带呈线状展布; 岩体内发育纵张节理(S1)、横张节理(S2)、"X"型共轭剪节理(S3、S4)及层间剪节理(S5)共5组与区域褶皱和对冲系断裂配套的陡倾构造结构面, 将岩体切割为破碎的块体; 研究区崩塌地质灾害是内、外动力地质作用耦合的产物。晚三叠世(T3)早期, 昌都地区陆内裂谷盆地环境沉积形成的上三叠统波里拉组(T3b)灰岩是崩塌发育的沉积建造基础; 新生代(Cz)印度-欧亚大陆碰撞引发的强烈褶皱造山运动奠定了区内构造格架, 是崩塌发育的必要条件; 第四纪(Q)以来的强烈新构造运动和晚更新世(Q3)以来的湿-热气候频繁交替、充沛降雨、现代人类活动等做为内和外动力的耦合作用是崩塌灾害的主要诱发因素。研究区内崩塌灾害存在倾倒式、坠落式和滑移式3种破坏模式。研究成果对岩溶区崩塌灾害防治与相关铁路建设具有一定指导意义。
Abstract:Rockfall in limestone mines is a common geohazard in the Changdu area of eastern Tibet and one of the leading geo-safety issues that mining enterprises and railway projects are faced with. We carried out a detailed geohazard survey using the methods of general geology, structural geology, and geohazard geology. We found the rockfall development pattern, characterized rock mass structural planes, discussed the collapse's mechanism, and established its failure mode. The results show that rockfall sites in the study area show a linear spreading along the fold and thrust zone. Five groups of steep-dip structural planes have developed in the rock body, including the longitudinal joint (S1), the transverse joint (S2), the X-type conjugate shear joints (S3 and S4), and the interlayer shear joint (S5). Paired with regional folds and hedging faults, these structural planes cut the rock mass into broken blocks. The collapses are the product of coupled internal and external dynamic geological processes. The sedimentary foundation of the rockfalls in the Qamdo area is the limestone from the upper Triassic Bolila Formation (T3b) formed in the intracontinental rift basin. The strongly folded orogeny triggered by the Cenozoic (Cz) India-Eurasia collision laid down the tectonic framework in the region, which is the essential condition for rockfall development. The strong Neotectonic movement since the Quaternary (Q), frequent hot and humid climate alternations with abundant rainfall since the Late Pleistocene (Q3), everyday human activities, and other internal and external dynamic coupling effects are the main triggering factors of the rockfall disaster. Three failure modes of rockfall are identified, namely toppling, falling, and sliding. The research results have specific guiding significance for rockfall prevention and control in the karst area and the railway construction in the Sichuan-Tibet area.
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0. 引言
中国是矿业大国，矿产资源开发利用为国民经济和社会发展做出了巨大贡献。与此同时也应当清醒地认识到，矿产资源长期大规模和超强度开采，不同程度破坏了矿山及其周边环境。因矿业开发引起的地面塌陷、土地损毁、山体崩塌、滑坡、泥石流等矿山地质灾害，严重影响了人民生命财产安全和正常生活秩序，不同程度地制约了经济社会的健康可持续发展，引起了国家和社会的高度关注。大力推进生态文明建设，加强和改进矿业领域生态文明，必须牢固树立科学发展的理念，以人为本，高度重视矿产资源开发过程中的环境问题及其对经济社会发展的影响。
随着卫星遥感技术的快速发展，基于高分辨率卫星遥感影像数据的矿山开采状况及环境影响分析已经可以满足日常管理工作的实际需求。以高分辨率遥感影像为基础，可以提供准确、客观、实时的矿山开发和环境信息，进而有针对性地对矿产资源开发利用问题进行研究与科学决策，以实现矿产资源高效利用与环境保护协调发展[1]。
1. 遥感技术在矿山地质环境调查中应用
遥感影像可以使各种生态环境因素得到充分的体现，根据各类要素在不同条件下的光谱特性、成像特性进行数字图像处理，在信息提取、分类的基础上进行污染现状调查与环境要素研究，并结合遥感影像上各种信息对主要污染源及其分布、污染扩散路径等进行分析。例如：根据水体在一定遥感波段上不同的光谱特征(反射率、亮度、颜色等)可以对其受污染状况做出评价；根据矿区不同时期遥感影像的地表信息(高程、颜色、纹理、亮度等)可以获取矿山土地塌陷、土地污染等方面的信息[2]。在遥感图像处理的基础上可以获得矿山生态环境全面、实时、丰富的信息源，进而可为矿山地质环境治理与恢复提供决策支持，并对治理后效果进行评价。
不同分辨率的遥感影像为建立矿山监测信息系统提供多源、多平台、多时相、多层次、多领域的实时、丰富、准确、可靠的信息，并可定期进行信息更新，具有成本低、效率高、时间快的显著特点，在矿山地质环境调查中具有广阔的应用前景[3]。
2. 研究区概况
山西省是中国重要的铁矿资源产地，探明储量居全国前列，分布相对集中，具有规模大、铁含量较低、地表露头或近地表、易选磁铁矿为主的特点，主要分布在娄烦—岚县、五台—恒山等地区。娄烦矿区位于吕梁山中部，独特的地质条件使得矿产资源异常丰富，不仅矿种多，分布广，且开采历史悠久，是山西省著名的铁矿石产地。
娄烦尖山铁矿在山西省已知铁矿中规模最大，该矿区铝土矿资源亦十分丰富，在省内居于首位，具有储量大、品位高的特点，开采方式分为露天开采和硐采两种。由于该地区具有较强的典型性和代表性，故作为此次调查的研究区(见图 1)。
3. 遥感调查方法
3.1 数据源
考虑到遥感卫星数据来源、分辨率等因素，本文采用GeoEye-1遥感数据资料，成像时间2010年7月。数据范围：111°21′22.78″，38°18′08.85″；111°58′29.51″，38°17′57.68″；111°16′50.34″，37°48′56.17″；111°58′05.29″，37°48′43.24″。面积2945 km2。遥感数据组合为4 m分辨率多光谱数据及1 m分辨率全色数据。数据获取范围内局部有少量云覆盖，对遥感解译影响不大，数据质量总体较好，满足监测要求(见图 2)。
图 2 山西娄烦调查区GeoEye-1遥感图像Figure 2. Remote sensing image of 1:10000 for the survey area in Loufan, Shanxi3.2 数据处理
获取数据后，将GeoEye-1图像进行了纠正处理。GeoEye-1数据全色分辨率为0.41 m，多光谱数据分辨率为1.65 m，数据纠正融合后，重采样分辨率为1.00 m。
3.2.1 图像纠正
遥感图像在成像过程中由于传感器的性能差异、卫星飞行高度和姿态变化及地面高低起伏不同会造成图像的各种几何畸变。为了消除几何畸变并把图像转换到需要的地图投影上去，需要对GeoEye-1数据进行几何纠正。以1:10000地形图或部分1:50000地形图(针对没有1:10000地形图的地区)和相应的DEM为基准进行正射纠正。纠正时仍采用高斯-克吕格3度带投影，校正后的图面中误差(1:50000尺度)一般不大于0.5 mm，最大不大于1.0 mm，控制点拟合精度误差0.3 mm以内[4]。
3.2.2 图像镶嵌
工作区涉及两景以上卫星数据时，需进行镶嵌处理。镶嵌时除了满足拼接线处相邻影像的细节在几何上一一对接外，相邻影像的色调要保持一致，并且达到层次丰富、色调均匀、反差适中、清晰的效果。
3.2.3 图像信息增强
为了在影像图上准确识别各类目标地物，解译前需要对遥感影像图进行一定的图像处理，根据矿区的实际特点选择有效的增强方法，数据融合为基本方法之一。
3.2.4 图像分类
主要针对多光谱数据进行，对不同的矿山地物类型将尝试采用不同的分类方法，高分辨率图像分类主要以目视为主。
3.3 信息提取
此次工作的信息提取在MAPGIS6.7平台进行，提取的目标物有：① 正在开采的地下、露天矿山的矿区、开采面、排土场等范围；② 已经闭坑的矿山状况及范围；③ 露天开采的石灰石矿等；④ 矿山地质环境现状(包括地质灾害、矿山污染等)。
3.4 实地调查
实地调查内容包括煤矿、铁矿、铝土矿等金属矿产资源开发状况及相关地物(开采面、排石场、排土场等)的类型、占地等，并对有界外开采嫌疑的图斑进行验证。
4. 调查区环境相关数据分析
4.1 矿山开发占用土地情况
遥感解译及统计数据显示，山西娄烦调查区矿山开发占地总面积为1057.73 hm2，生产矿山占地318.34 hm2(其中，采石场开采占地104.44 hm2)，固体废弃物占地646.84 hm2，闭坑矿山占地92.55 hm2，其面积比例约为3:6:1，固体废弃物及闭坑矿山占矿山开采占地总面积的70%。合法开采与违规开采占用土地比例约为1:5，违规开采占用土地问题十分突出(见表 1、表 2)。
表 1 调查区矿山开采占用土地统计(按开采阶段)Table 1. Statistics survey area of land occupied by mining (Mining stage classification)开发状况 矿种 个数 占地面积/ha 合计 生产矿山(地下开采) 煤矿 25 25.86 25.86 铁矿 14 生产矿山(露天开采) 铝土矿 4 3.82 292.48 铁矿 14 184.22 石材 112 104.44 固体废弃物占地 排土场 219 300.65 646.84 尾矿库 133 214.21 废铁矿石堆 234 131.98 闭坑矿山 铝土矿 6 19.92 92.55 铁矿 143 72.63 表 2 调查区矿山开采占用土地统计(按矿种)Table 2. Statistics of land occupied by mining in the survey area according to mineral commodity矿种 开采面 矿山建筑 固体废弃物 合法开采 违规开采 小计 煤矿 14.63 11.23 25.86 25.86 铝土矿 3.82 3.82 8.13 铁矿 45.78 138.44 184.22 638.71 采石场 104.44 104.44 合计 49.6 242.88 292.48 25.86 646.84 4.2 矿山开发引起的次生地质灾害情况
通过遥感解译及数据分析得出，该监测区域范围内，主要地质灾害有地面沉降、滑坡、地裂缝等。因开采石材，引发山体崩塌、滑坡等地质灾害，造成道路阻塞，损毁交通，共有9处隐患点，地质灾害面积约6.95 hm2(见图 3)。
4.3 矿山开发导致粉尘污染
调查区内局部地区密集开采石材矿，其特点是规模小、布点密，整体布局比较零乱，采石场粉尘的随意排放严重影响大气环境和周围生态环境。露天堆放的石料导致整个矿区粉尘满天飞，采石场沿途不断有拉满石料的车辆开过，扬起的尘土使整个空间能见度极低，部分石料还从车上散落下来，造成二次污染，导致该地区粉尘污染非常严重。
粉尘弥漫在空气当中，降低了空气质量，影响了日常生活，长期身处粉尘污染的环境会引起多种疾病，严重影响人们身体健康；粉尘污染使矿区土壤质量变坏、硬化，植被遭到破坏，长期积下的粉尘还污染了农作物，并引起农作物减产。
5. 结论与建议
5.1 矿山开发占地严重，恢复治理工作亟待开展
通过研究发现，随着区域矿业活动的加剧，矿山开发占地规模逐步加大，矿山开采引发了一系列的环境问题，造成了区域生态环境的恶化。矿山闭坑后，未能得到及时的恢复治理，造成长期闲置，大量可开采矿产资源长期裸露在外，造成了资源浪费，还严重破坏了周边的生态环境，长此以往，势必影响当地资源开发与经济社会的可持续发展[5]。
建议：① 节约集约利用土地，提高建设用地利用效率，减少矿山土地占用；② 针对不同类型、不同阶段的矿山地质环境问题，区别对待，制定不同的预防与治理恢复措施。在矿山开采过程中，推广应用充填开采等技术，切实减少地面塌陷，减少废弃物堆放造成的土地损毁。同时，采矿权人在开采矿产资源的同时，认真执行矿山地质环境保证金制度，积极承担起治理责任和义务；对于历史遗留的矿山地质环境问题，各级政府部门应当严格制定并实施规划，加大投入，认真做好矿山地质环境恢复治理工作。
5.2 矿山开采引发地质灾害隐患不容忽视
据统计，地质灾害成因大多是人为原因所造成。调查区内采石场众多，且比较分散，设置规模小，设备简易，石材的粗放式开采极易造成山体崩塌和道路阻塞、损毁。尤其是在雨季等极端气候下引发山体崩塌、滑坡、泥石流等地质灾害的频率极高。建议相关部门应当引起足够重视，加强排查、监管与综合治理，推进地质灾害群测群防体系建设，减少地质灾害隐患点，确保人民生命和财产安全。确有必要的地区，实施搬迁避让工程，对受滑坡、泥石流影响的居民所在地进行搬迁治理，提早预防、及早治理。
5.3 部分矿产开发无序，亟待建立科学规范的矿山开发秩序
从驱动因素上分析，经济快速增长导致的资源过度、无序开采是该地区矿山地质环境不断恶化的重要决定性因素[6]。然而长久以来，粗放式开采造成的环境问题与日俱增，按照新形势下科学开采的新要求，迫切需要发展绿色矿业，建设绿色矿山。将绿色矿业理念贯穿于矿产资源开发利用全过程，转变以往单纯以消耗资源、破坏生态为代价的开发利用方式，实现资源开发的经济效益、生态效益、环境效益和社会效益的协调统一。
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图 1 昌都地区大地构造位置图与区域地质简图
a—昌都地区大地构造位置图(许志琴等，2013)；b—区域地质简图
Figure 1. Geotectonic map of the Qamdo area and regional geological sketchmap
(a) Geotectonic map of the Qamdo area (Xu et al., 2013); (b) Regional geological sketchmap
图 2 典型石灰石矿山采场崩塌
a—爱华娃石灰石矿山采场崩塌；b—加克岗石灰石矿山采场崩塌；c—勃洛雄石灰石矿山采场崩塌；d—卡若石灰石矿山采场崩塌
Figure 2. Typical rockfalls in limestone mines
(a)Rockfall in the Evawa limestone mine; (b)Rockfall in the Jiakegang limestone mine; (c)Rockfall in the Boluoxiong limestone mine; (d)Rockfall in the Karo limestone mine
图 3 危岩带地层中的F4断层角砾岩特征
a—F4断层破碎带全景；b—断层角砾岩破碎特征；c—断层角砾岩，由灰岩角砾和钙质胶结物组成；d、e—断层角砾被后期延伸无规律的张性裂隙切割，裂隙内充填未固结的紫红色泥质条带
Figure 3. Photos of the F4 fault breccia in the unstable rock zone
(a) Panorama of the F4 fault fracture zone; (b) Fregmented fault breccia; (c) Fault breccia composed of limestone breccia and calcareous cement; (d and e) The fault breccia is cut by the later irregular extensional fracture, and the fracture is filled with unconsolidated purplish red argillaceous strip
图 4 灰岩中的溶蚀和淋滤沉积现象
a—灰岩层理面溶蚀形成的瘤状起伏面，表面附着泥质薄膜；b—灰岩裂隙面溶蚀发育的溶沟和石芽；c—横张裂隙内发育的葡萄状钟乳石；d—灰岩淋滤沉积形成的皮壳状钟乳石，内部包裹灰岩角砾核心
Figure 4. Dissolution and leaching deposition in limestone
(a) Nodular undulating surface formed by dissolution of limestone bedding, with argillaceous film attached on the surface; (b) Karst groove and stone bud developed by dissolution of limestone fracture surface; (c) Grape-shaped stalactites developed in transverse fractures; (d) Crust-like stalactites formed by eluviation and sedimentation of limestone, with limestone breccia cores wrapped inside
图 5 岩体结构面特征分析图
S0—原生层理面；S1—纵张节理；S2—横张节理；S3、S4—共轭剪节理；S5—层间剪节理
a—岩体结构面极点图；b—岩体结构面等密度图Figure 5. Characterization plots of the rock mass structural planes
(a) Pole plot of the rock mass structural plane; (b) Contour plot of the rock mass structural plane
S0-Primary bedding plane; S1-Longitudinal joints; S2-Transverse joints; S3 and S4-Conjugate shear joints; S5-Interlayered shear joints
图 6 岩体结构面发育特征
a—切割原生层理面(S0)的纵张节理(S1)、横张节理(S2)；b—“X”型共轭剪节理(S3、S4)；c—背斜南西翼发育的层间剪节理(S5)切割原生层理面(S0)形成缓倾的“Z”型剪切变形；d—纵张节理(S1)与“X”型共轭剪节理(S3、S4)大角度相交，节理内充填网状方解石脉
Figure 6. Photos showing the characteristics of the rock mass structural planes
(a)The longitudinal joint (S1) and the transverse joint (S2) cuts the primary bedding plane (S0); (b) The "X"-type conjugate shear joints (S3 and S4) filled with calcite vein; (c) The interlayered shear joint (S5) developed in the southwest flank of the anticline cuts the primary bedding plane (S0) to form a gentle "Z"-type shear deformation; (d) The longitudinal joint (S1) intersects with the "X"-type conjugate shear joints (S3 and S4) at a large angle, and the joints are filled with reticulate calcite vein
图 7 纵弯背斜相关结构面形成机理
S0—原生层理面；S1—纵张节理；S2—横张节理；S3、S4—共轭剪节理；S5—层间剪节理
Figure 7. Formation mechanism of the structural planes related to longitudinally curved anticlines
S0-Primary bedding plane; S1-Longitudinal joints; S2-Transverse joint; S3 and S4-Conjugate shear joints; S5-Interlayered shear joint
图 8 最大主应力方位反演玫瑰花图
Figure 8. Rose diagram for inversion of the maximum principle stress orientation
图 9 卡若石灰石矿山采场崩塌形成过程示意图
图件侧重于表达崩塌形成过程，并未按实际厚度比例绘制各地层；同一类型结构面线条厚度的不同表示裂隙宽度的变化
a—崩塌地层沉积建造形成阶段；b—岩体构造破碎阶段早期，区域挤压环境形成褶皱系及相关结构面；c—岩体构造破碎阶段晚期，挤压应力持续，叠加构造体制转换，形成区内断裂系同时，促进了结构面的拓宽、改造与贯通，加剧了岩体结构的破坏；d—崩塌形成阶段Figure 9. Schematic diagram of the rockfall formation process in the Caro limestone mine
(a) Stratum formation process of rockfall; (b) A fold system and associated structural planes developed under regional extrusion stress in the early fracture stage of the rock mass; (c) The extrusion stress continues and the tectonic regime shifts in the late fracture stage, forming a fault stytem within the area, which widens, transforms, and connects the structural planes, accelerating the destruction of the rock structure
The schematic diagram focuses on the rockfall formation process, so the strata are not drawn in proportion to the actual thickness. The difference in line thickness of the same structural plane represents the variation of crack width
图 10 石灰石矿山采场崩塌主要破坏模式
a、b—倾倒式崩塌；c、d—坠落式崩塌；e—滑移式崩塌
Figure 10. Main failure modes of rockfall in limestone mines
(a and b) Toppling rockfalls; (c and d) Falling rockfalls; (e) Sliding rockfalls
表 1 结构面产状信息及其统计表/(°)
Table 1. Occurrence information and statistics of the structural plane/(°)
序号 纵张节理S1 横张节理S2 “X”型节理S3 “X”型节理S4 层间剪节理S5 1 22∠74 315∠88 280∠66 175∠82 47∠51 2 32∠85 109∠88 283∠48 169∠74 68∠42 3 25∠78 278∠83 323∠57 158∠87 49∠61 4 47∠77 280∠84 322∠53 166∠72 47∠88 5 42∠75 316∠90 303∠76 164∠77 46∠76 6 32∠77 122∠88 291∠64 157∠82 50∠54 7 39∠75 284∠87 304∠69 165∠73 64∠85 8 23∠87 283∠85 317∠74 156∠52 9 45∠80 282∠82 297∠77 177∠72 10 32∠71 316∠84 319∠51 179∠71 11 27∠79 303∠51 160∠79 12 44∠84 309∠76 175∠62 13 309∠68 175∠52 14 297∠70 164∠75 15 325∠67 170∠84 16 310∠55 178∠88 17 325∠77 155∠74 18 286∠78 166∠55 19 327∠59 151∠63 
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