Mechanism of rockfall coupled with endogenic and exogenic geological processes: A case study in the upper Triassic limestone mines in the Qamdo area, eastern Tibet
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摘要:
石灰石矿山采场崩塌是藏东昌都地区常见的地质灾害类型, 是矿山企业安全生产和铁路工程建设面临的主要地质安全问题之一。文章采用基础地质、构造地质和灾害地质相结合的方法, 通过详实的地质灾害调查, 查明崩塌发育规律, 分析岩体结构面特征, 探讨崩塌灾害的形成机理, 并建立其破坏模式。结果表明: 藏东昌都地区上三叠统石灰石矿山采场崩塌沿区内褶冲带呈线状展布; 岩体内发育纵张节理(S1)、横张节理(S2)、"X"型共轭剪节理(S3、S4)及层间剪节理(S5)共5组与区域褶皱和对冲系断裂配套的陡倾构造结构面, 将岩体切割为破碎的块体; 研究区崩塌地质灾害是内、外动力地质作用耦合的产物。晚三叠世(T3)早期, 昌都地区陆内裂谷盆地环境沉积形成的上三叠统波里拉组(T3b)灰岩是崩塌发育的沉积建造基础; 新生代(Cz)印度-欧亚大陆碰撞引发的强烈褶皱造山运动奠定了区内构造格架, 是崩塌发育的必要条件; 第四纪(Q)以来的强烈新构造运动和晚更新世(Q3)以来的湿-热气候频繁交替、充沛降雨、现代人类活动等做为内和外动力的耦合作用是崩塌灾害的主要诱发因素。研究区内崩塌灾害存在倾倒式、坠落式和滑移式3种破坏模式。研究成果对岩溶区崩塌灾害防治与相关铁路建设具有一定指导意义。
Abstract:Rockfall in limestone mines is a common geohazard in the Changdu area of eastern Tibet and one of the leading geo-safety issues that mining enterprises and railway projects are faced with. We carried out a detailed geohazard survey using the methods of general geology, structural geology, and geohazard geology. We found the rockfall development pattern, characterized rock mass structural planes, discussed the collapse's mechanism, and established its failure mode. The results show that rockfall sites in the study area show a linear spreading along the fold and thrust zone. Five groups of steep-dip structural planes have developed in the rock body, including the longitudinal joint (S1), the transverse joint (S2), the X-type conjugate shear joints (S3 and S4), and the interlayer shear joint (S5). Paired with regional folds and hedging faults, these structural planes cut the rock mass into broken blocks. The collapses are the product of coupled internal and external dynamic geological processes. The sedimentary foundation of the rockfalls in the Qamdo area is the limestone from the upper Triassic Bolila Formation (T3b) formed in the intracontinental rift basin. The strongly folded orogeny triggered by the Cenozoic (Cz) India-Eurasia collision laid down the tectonic framework in the region, which is the essential condition for rockfall development. The strong Neotectonic movement since the Quaternary (Q), frequent hot and humid climate alternations with abundant rainfall since the Late Pleistocene (Q3), everyday human activities, and other internal and external dynamic coupling effects are the main triggering factors of the rockfall disaster. Three failure modes of rockfall are identified, namely toppling, falling, and sliding. The research results have specific guiding significance for rockfall prevention and control in the karst area and the railway construction in the Sichuan-Tibet area.
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图 1 昌都地区大地构造位置图与区域地质简图
a—昌都地区大地构造位置图(许志琴等，2013)；b—区域地质简图
Figure 1. Geotectonic map of the Qamdo area and regional geological sketchmap
(a) Geotectonic map of the Qamdo area (Xu et al., 2013); (b) Regional geological sketchmap
图 2 典型石灰石矿山采场崩塌
a—爱华娃石灰石矿山采场崩塌；b—加克岗石灰石矿山采场崩塌；c—勃洛雄石灰石矿山采场崩塌；d—卡若石灰石矿山采场崩塌
Figure 2. Typical rockfalls in limestone mines
(a)Rockfall in the Evawa limestone mine; (b)Rockfall in the Jiakegang limestone mine; (c)Rockfall in the Boluoxiong limestone mine; (d)Rockfall in the Karo limestone mine
图 3 危岩带地层中的F4断层角砾岩特征
a—F4断层破碎带全景；b—断层角砾岩破碎特征；c—断层角砾岩，由灰岩角砾和钙质胶结物组成；d、e—断层角砾被后期延伸无规律的张性裂隙切割，裂隙内充填未固结的紫红色泥质条带
Figure 3. Photos of the F4 fault breccia in the unstable rock zone
(a) Panorama of the F4 fault fracture zone; (b) Fregmented fault breccia; (c) Fault breccia composed of limestone breccia and calcareous cement; (d and e) The fault breccia is cut by the later irregular extensional fracture, and the fracture is filled with unconsolidated purplish red argillaceous strip
图 4 灰岩中的溶蚀和淋滤沉积现象
a—灰岩层理面溶蚀形成的瘤状起伏面，表面附着泥质薄膜；b—灰岩裂隙面溶蚀发育的溶沟和石芽；c—横张裂隙内发育的葡萄状钟乳石；d—灰岩淋滤沉积形成的皮壳状钟乳石，内部包裹灰岩角砾核心
Figure 4. Dissolution and leaching deposition in limestone
(a) Nodular undulating surface formed by dissolution of limestone bedding, with argillaceous film attached on the surface; (b) Karst groove and stone bud developed by dissolution of limestone fracture surface; (c) Grape-shaped stalactites developed in transverse fractures; (d) Crust-like stalactites formed by eluviation and sedimentation of limestone, with limestone breccia cores wrapped inside
图 5 岩体结构面特征分析图
S0—原生层理面；S1—纵张节理；S2—横张节理；S3、S4—共轭剪节理；S5—层间剪节理
a—岩体结构面极点图；b—岩体结构面等密度图Figure 5. Characterization plots of the rock mass structural planes
(a) Pole plot of the rock mass structural plane; (b) Contour plot of the rock mass structural plane
S0-Primary bedding plane; S1-Longitudinal joints; S2-Transverse joints; S3 and S4-Conjugate shear joints; S5-Interlayered shear joints
图 6 岩体结构面发育特征
a—切割原生层理面(S0)的纵张节理(S1)、横张节理(S2)；b—“X”型共轭剪节理(S3、S4)；c—背斜南西翼发育的层间剪节理(S5)切割原生层理面(S0)形成缓倾的“Z”型剪切变形；d—纵张节理(S1)与“X”型共轭剪节理(S3、S4)大角度相交，节理内充填网状方解石脉
Figure 6. Photos showing the characteristics of the rock mass structural planes
(a)The longitudinal joint (S1) and the transverse joint (S2) cuts the primary bedding plane (S0); (b) The "X"-type conjugate shear joints (S3 and S4) filled with calcite vein; (c) The interlayered shear joint (S5) developed in the southwest flank of the anticline cuts the primary bedding plane (S0) to form a gentle "Z"-type shear deformation; (d) The longitudinal joint (S1) intersects with the "X"-type conjugate shear joints (S3 and S4) at a large angle, and the joints are filled with reticulate calcite vein
图 7 纵弯背斜相关结构面形成机理
S0—原生层理面；S1—纵张节理；S2—横张节理；S3、S4—共轭剪节理；S5—层间剪节理
Figure 7. Formation mechanism of the structural planes related to longitudinally curved anticlines
S0-Primary bedding plane; S1-Longitudinal joints; S2-Transverse joint; S3 and S4-Conjugate shear joints; S5-Interlayered shear joint
图 8 最大主应力方位反演玫瑰花图
Figure 8. Rose diagram for inversion of the maximum principle stress orientation
图 9 卡若石灰石矿山采场崩塌形成过程示意图
图件侧重于表达崩塌形成过程，并未按实际厚度比例绘制各地层；同一类型结构面线条厚度的不同表示裂隙宽度的变化
a—崩塌地层沉积建造形成阶段；b—岩体构造破碎阶段早期，区域挤压环境形成褶皱系及相关结构面；c—岩体构造破碎阶段晚期，挤压应力持续，叠加构造体制转换，形成区内断裂系同时，促进了结构面的拓宽、改造与贯通，加剧了岩体结构的破坏；d—崩塌形成阶段Figure 9. Schematic diagram of the rockfall formation process in the Caro limestone mine
(a) Stratum formation process of rockfall; (b) A fold system and associated structural planes developed under regional extrusion stress in the early fracture stage of the rock mass; (c) The extrusion stress continues and the tectonic regime shifts in the late fracture stage, forming a fault stytem within the area, which widens, transforms, and connects the structural planes, accelerating the destruction of the rock structure
The schematic diagram focuses on the rockfall formation process, so the strata are not drawn in proportion to the actual thickness. The difference in line thickness of the same structural plane represents the variation of crack width
图 10 石灰石矿山采场崩塌主要破坏模式
a、b—倾倒式崩塌；c、d—坠落式崩塌；e—滑移式崩塌
Figure 10. Main failure modes of rockfall in limestone mines
(a and b) Toppling rockfalls; (c and d) Falling rockfalls; (e) Sliding rockfalls
表 1 结构面产状信息及其统计表/(°)
Table 1. Occurrence information and statistics of the structural plane/(°)
序号 纵张节理S1 横张节理S2 “X”型节理S3 “X”型节理S4 层间剪节理S5 1 22∠74 315∠88 280∠66 175∠82 47∠51 2 32∠85 109∠88 283∠48 169∠74 68∠42 3 25∠78 278∠83 323∠57 158∠87 49∠61 4 47∠77 280∠84 322∠53 166∠72 47∠88 5 42∠75 316∠90 303∠76 164∠77 46∠76 6 32∠77 122∠88 291∠64 157∠82 50∠54 7 39∠75 284∠87 304∠69 165∠73 64∠85 8 23∠87 283∠85 317∠74 156∠52 9 45∠80 282∠82 297∠77 177∠72 10 32∠71 316∠84 319∠51 179∠71 11 27∠79 303∠51 160∠79 12 44∠84 309∠76 175∠62 13 309∠68 175∠52 14 297∠70 164∠75 15 325∠67 170∠84 16 310∠55 178∠88 17 325∠77 155∠74 18 286∠78 166∠55 19 327∠59 151∠63 
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