Symmetric and asymmetric deformation from plate-margin orogeny to intracontinental tectonics: formation mechanisms of lithospheric tectonic vergence
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摘要: 构造极性是造山带缩短与增厚过程中几何对称性与运动方向性的集中体现，也是连接构造几何学、运动学与岩石圈动力学的关键纽带。已有研究多从局部收缩构造变形或前陆褶皱冲断带演化的角度讨论构造极性，而对造山带岩石圈尺度构造极性的形成条件、演化过程及其在板缘与陆内环境中的差异认识仍不够系统。文章旨在基于板缘造山到陆内变形的空间序列，探讨岩石圈尺度构造极性的形成机制及其动力学控制因素。选取安第斯造山带（洋–陆俯冲）、台湾造山带（弧–陆碰撞）、阿尔卑斯造山带（板缘向陆内过渡）、祁连山造山带和天山造山带（陆内造山）为代表实例，综合地表构造样式、前陆褶皱冲断带演化过程和现今造山带岩石圈结构特征，对比不同构造环境下造山带构造极性的形成与演化。研究表明，板缘汇聚体系通常发育稳定的单向构造极性。在安第斯和台湾造山带中，稳定的单侧俯冲板片可长期维持主控剪切界面，使缩短应变沿界面局限化并以单向方式向前陆传递，形成以简单剪切主导的非对称增厚体系。阿尔卑斯造山带则显示构造极性具有阶段性：早期俯冲–碰撞阶段表现为单向极性，而陆–陆碰撞完成后，板片断离、山根榴辉岩化及热–力学重组促使应变由界面型集中转向区域性再分配，造山带逐步形成双向缩短与近对称增厚格局。陆内造山中，构造极性是否能够建立与维持，主要取决于两侧岩石圈强度–浮力结构差异及主控下插界面的可维持性。祁连山造山带与天山造山带均缺乏稳定的单侧岩石圈俯冲界面，缩短主要通过分布式增厚、基底卷入以及两侧高角度逆冲体系实现，整体表现为弱极性或近对称的纯剪切式变形。构造极性是造山带记录边界条件与物性结构耦合过程的地质表达，为连接地表变形样式与岩石圈尺度动力学机制提供可检验的几何学约束。Abstract:
Objective Tectonic vergence records the geometric asymmetry and kinematic directionality of shortening during orogenic thickening and provides a key link between surface deformation and lithospheric-scale geodynamics. Although vergence is widely used in structural geology, its expression at the scale of entire orogenic belts remains insufficiently clarified, especially in intracontinental settings where stable plate-boundary subduction is absent. This study aims to compare vergence patterns from plate-margin orogens to intracontinental mountain belts and to identify the mechanisms controlling their formation, maintenance, weakening, and transformation. Methods We synthesize five representative orogenic systems: the Central Andes, Taiwan, the Alps, the Qilian Shan, and the Tian Shan. Surface structural styles, fold–thrust belt geometry, orogen–foreland basin coupling, geomorphic evolution, modern crustal deformation, seismicity, and lithospheric architecture — constrained by Moho/LAB geometry and geophysical imaging — are integrated to evaluate vergence at multiple scales. Results Plate-margin convergent systems commonly develop stable one-sided tectonic vergence. In the Central Andes, long-lived subduction of the Nazca slab provides persistent asymmetric forcing, causing shortening to be localized above the subduction interface and transmitted eastward toward the retroarc and foreland. The Altiplano Plateau, with crustal thickness locally reaching 60–75 km, records progressive Cenozoic crustal thickening, uplift, and eastward propagation of deformation. Taiwan, as a young arc–continent collision system, locally records early-stage bidirectional deformation around the Central Range and arc-side backthrusting near the Longitudinal Valley–Coastal Range system. However, foreland basin evolution, westward migration of the frontal fold–thrust belt, and modern shortening concentrated along the western Taiwan thrust system indicate that its long-term, orogen-scale, dominant vergence remains west-directed. The Alps demonstrate that tectonic vergence is time-dependent. During early subduction and continental collision, deformation was localized along a single subduction interface, producing a north-vergent simple-shear-dominated architecture. After collision, slab break-off, eclogitization of the orogenic root, and thermomechanical reorganization weakened the earlier interface-controlled deformation and promoted strain redistribution across both flanks of the orogen, leading to paired north- and south-vergent thrust systems and a more symmetric collisional structure. In intracontinental orogens, stable one-sided vergence is not guaranteed. The Qilian Shan and Tian Shan lack compelling evidence for a continuous, long-lived, single-sided lithospheric subduction interface. Their deformation is mainly expressed by distributed crustal thickening, high-angle reverse faulting on opposing flanks, and near-symmetric shortening. Recent studies from the Qilian Shan further show that lithospheric-scale tectonic wedges may develop along basin–mountain transition zones, where relatively rigid basin lithosphere wedges into the weakened lower crust of a thickened orogen. Such wedge structures are best interpreted as local expressions within a pure-shear, vertically coherent deformation framework rather than as large-scale simple-shear intracontinental subduction. Conclusions Lithospheric-scale tectonic vergence is controlled by the coupling among boundary conditions, negative-buoyancy forcing, and lithospheric strength–buoyancy structure. Persistent single-sided slabs or effective negative-buoyancy sources favor stable simple-shear vergence, whereas slab break-off, loss of one-sided forcing, and mechanically strong opposing blocks favor distributed pure-shear thickening and weak or near-symmetric vergence. [Significance] This study provides a unified framework for interpreting tectonic vergence from plate margins to continental interiors. It highlights vergence as a geometrically testable indicator for linking surface deformation, basin–orogen coupling, and lithospheric-scale geodynamic processes. -
Key words:
- intracontinental deformation /
- tectonic vergence /
- Tibetan Plateau /
- simple shear /
- pure shear
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图 1 安第斯造山带岩石圈结构及其构造−地貌演化过程
WC—西科迪勒拉造山带；AL—阿尔蒂普拉诺高原；EC—东科迪勒拉造山带；IA—内安第斯前陆褶皱冲断带；SA—次安第斯前陆褶皱冲断带；CPB—查科−巴拉那前陆盆地a—安第斯造山带中部阿尔蒂普拉诺高原岩石圈剖面（据McQuarrie et al.，2005修改）；b—阿尔蒂普拉诺高原中新世至今构造−地貌演化过程模式图（区域剥露历史引自Lease et al.，2016；Giambiagi et al.，2022）
Figure 1. Lithospheric structure and tectono-geomorphic evolution of the Andean orogen
(a) Lithospheric cross section of the Central Andes across the Altiplano Plateau (modified after McQuarrie et al., 2005); (b) Schematic model illustrating the Miocene to present tectonic–geomorphic evolution of the Altiplano Plateau (Regional exhumation history after Lease et al., 2016; Giambiagi et al., 2022) WC—Western Cordillera; AL—Altiplano Plateau; EC—Eastern Cordillera; IA—Interandes; SA—Subandes; CPB—Chaco–Parana Foreland Basin
图 2 安第斯造山带中部野外露头及地震反射剖面变形特征（野外露头照片和地震反射剖面引自Zamora and Mora，2022）
a—Precordillera地区奥陶系San Juan组中的褶皱构造；b—Precordillera地区奥陶系San Juan组褶皱翼部发育的冲断双重构造；c—Precordillera地区中新统Auquilco组陆相沉积岩野外露头；d—次安第斯（Subandes）前陆褶皱冲断带地震反射剖面
Figure 2. Field outrops and seismic reflection evidence for deformation in the Central Andes (Field photos and seismic data after Zamora and Mora, 2022)
(a) Fold structures within the Ordovician San Juan Formation in the Precordillera region; (b) Thrust-duplex structures developed on the fold limb of the Ordovician San Juan Formation in the Precordillera region; (c) Miocene terrestrial deposits of the Auquilco Formation; (d) Seismic reflection profile across the Subandean foreland fold-and-thrust belt
图 3 台湾造山带中部岩石圈剖面（据Malavieille et al.，2021修改）
Figure 3. Lithospheric cross section of the central Taiwan orogen (modified after Malavieille et al., 2021)
图 4 阿尔卑斯山造山带中部岩石圈剖面（据Schmid et al.，1996修改）
a—古近纪；b—新近纪
Figure 4. Lithospheric cross section of the central Alps orogen (modified after Schmid et al., 1996)
(a) Paleogene; (b) Neogene
图 5 阿尔卑斯造山带南部（意大利北部）野外露头
a—向东南方向倾伏的千枚岩化的古生代变质结晶基底（内部断裂带黏土矿物伊利石记录的最后一次变形事件的年龄为29.9±11.2 Ma；Curzi et al.，2024）；b—古新统Scaglia Rossa组灰岩；c—白垩系Maiolica组灰岩（断裂带内部碳酸盐岩U-Pb年龄为方解石23±14 Ma；Curzi et al.，2024）
Figure 5. Field outcrops from the central Alps (northern Italy)
(a) Phyllonitized Paleozoic metamorphic crystalline basement dipping toward the southeast; illite from fault-related clay minerals records the latest deformation event at 29.9 ± 11.2 Ma (Curzi et al., 2024); (b) Paleocene limestone of the Scaglia Rossa Formation; (c) Cretaceous limestone of the Maiolica Formation; carbonate U–Pb dating of calcite within the fault zone yields an age of 23 ± 14 Ma (Curzi et al., 2024)
图 6 祁连山造山带端元模型及其岩石圈结构
Ps/P—转换波与直达纵波的振幅比a—祁连山简单剪切模型（据Shen et al.，2020修改）；b—祁连山纯剪切模型（据Shen et al.，2020修改）；c—祁连山−河西走廊−阿拉善岩石圈结构剖面（据Shen et al.，2020修改）；d—祁连山岩石圈结构剖面（据Ye et al.，2021修改）
Figure 6. End-member models and lithospheric structure of the Qilian Shan orogenic belt
(a) Simple shear model for the Qilian Shan (modified after Shen et al., 2020); (b) Pure shear model for the Qilian Shan (modified after Shen et al., 2020); (c) Lithospheric cross section across the Qilian Shan–Hexi Corridor–Alxa block (modified after Shen et al., 2020); (d) Lithospheric structure profile of the Qilian Shan (modified after Ye et al., 2021) Ps/P—amplitude ratio of the converted wave to the direct P-wave
图 7 天山造山带端元模型及其岩石圈结构
Ps/P—转换波与直达纵波的振幅比a—天山简单剪切模型（据Xu et al.，2025；Li et al.，2022b修改）；b—天山纯剪切模型（据Xu et al.，2025；Li et al.，2022b修改）；c—天山西段岩石圈结构（据Li et al.，2022b修改）；d—天山东段岩石圈结构（据Yang et al.，2022修改）
Figure 7. End-member models and lithospheric structure of the Tianshan orogenic belt
(a) Simple-shear model of the Tianshan (modified after Xu et al., 2025; Li et al., 2022b); (b) Pure-shear model of the Tianshan (modified after Xu et al., 2025; Li et al., 2022b); (c) Lithospheric structure of the western Tianshan (modified after Li et al., 2022b); (d) Lithospheric structure of the eastern Tianshan (modified after Yang et al., 2022) Ps/P—amplitude ratio of the converted wave to the direct P-wave
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