Numerical simulation analysis of seismically triggered load and ball-and-pillow structures in the lacustrine sediment
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摘要: 湖相沉积中地震成因的软沉积变形构造，为构造活动区古地震事件研究提供了可靠的地层记录。负载与球−枕构造作为常见的变形类型，通常由不同沉积层反密度差所引发的重力失稳所致，但其形成机制及与地震强度之间的量化关系仍缺乏明确阐释。文章采用FLUENT多相流数值模拟方法，反演了在不同地震加速度（0.125g、0.25g、0.5g和0.8g）及不同物理性质（密度、动力黏度和层厚）条件下饱和砂−黏土层中负载与球−枕构造的形成过程，探讨了沉积层物理性质对此类变形构造发育的影响及其与地震强度之间的关系。模拟结果表明：地震加速度越大，砂−黏土层界面越早出现负载与火焰构造，且由小型负载构造逐渐发展为较大规模的负载与球−枕构造；在相同地震加速度条件下，上覆砂层和下伏黏土层的密度差越大、动力黏度差越小、上覆砂层越厚，负载与球−枕构造的变形程度和规模也更显著。数值模拟得到的负载与球−枕构造形态与塔什库尔干湖相沉积层中野外观测案例高度一致，既验证了其力学机制，也为软沉积变形构造与古地震研究提供了新的技术途径和直观依据。Abstract:
Objective Seismically triggered soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDSs) in the lacustrine sediments serve as reliable stratigraphic records for studying paleoearthquake events in tectonically active regions. Load and ball-and-pillow structures, as common types of SSDSs, are generally attributed to gravitational instability caused by an inverse density gradient between adjacent sedimentary layers. However, their formation mechanisms and the quantitative relationship between their development and seismic intensity remain poorly constrained. Methods This study employs the multiphase-flow numerical simulation approach implemented in ANSYS Fluent to simulate the formation of load and ball-and-pillow structures in saturated sand–clay layers under different peak ground accelerations (PGAs; 0.125g, 0.25g, 0.5g, and 0.8g) and varying physical properties, including density, dynamic viscosity and layer thicknesses). The effects of sediment physical properties on the development of these deformation structures and their relationship with seismic intensity were investigated. Results The results show that as the PGA increases, load and flame structures develop earlier at the sand–clay interface and progressively evolve from small load structures into larger-scale load and ball-and-pillow structures. Under the same PGA, a larger density contrast, a smaller dynamic viscosity contrast, and a thicker overlying sand layer result in greater deformation and larger-scale development of load and ball-and-pillow structures. Conclusions The morphologies of the load and ball-and-pillow structures produced by the numerical simulations are highly consistent with those observed in lacustrine sediments in the Tashkorgan area. This agreement supports the proposed mechanical mechanism of their formation and provides a quantitative basis for understanding the development of SSDSs under different seismic and sedimentary conditions. Significance This finding verifies the seismic trigger of SSDSs in this region and provides a new technological insight into the study of SSDSs and paleoearthquakes. -
图 1 El Centro地震波加速度时程曲线
g—重力加速度，9.81 m/s2
Figure 1. Acceleration time history of the El Centro earthquake
g–gravitational acceleration，9.81 m/s2
图 2 不同地震峰值加速度作用下砂−黏土层在2 s、3 s、5 s和6 s时刻的变形特征
g—重力加速度，9.81 m/s2；ρ—流体混合物的密度；μ—流体混合物的动力黏度；图底箭头为地震波输入方向a—地震峰值加速度为0.125g；b—地震峰值加速度为0.25g；c—地震峰值加速度为0.5g；d—地震峰值加速度为0.8g
Figure 2. Deformation characteristics of the sand–clay layer at 2, 3, 5, and 6 s under different peak ground accelerations
(a) Peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.125g；(b) PGA of 0.25g；(c) PGA of 0.5g；(d) PGA of 0.8gg–gravitational acceleration，9.81 m/s2; ρ–density of the fluid mixture; μ–dynamic viscosity of the fluid mixture. The arrows at the bottom of subfigures indicate the directions of seismic-wave input.
图 3 不同密度差（Δρ）砂−黏土层在2 s、3 s 、5 s和6 s时刻的变形特征
g—重力加速度，9.81 m/s2；ρ—流体混合物的密度；μ—流体混合物的动力黏度；图底箭头为地震波输入方向a—Δρ为100 kg/m3；b—Δρ为200 kg/m3；c—Δρ为300 kg/m3
Figure 3. Deformation characteristics of the sand–clay layer at 2, 3, 5, and 6 s under different density contrasts (Δρ)
(a) Δρ of 100 kg/m3；(b) Δρ of 200 kg/m3；(c) Δρ of 300 kg/m3g–gravitational acceleration，9.81 m/s2; ρ–density of the fluid mixture; μ–dynamic viscosity of the fluid mixture. The arrows at the bottom of subfigures indicate the directions of seismic-wave input.
图 4 不同动力黏度差的砂−黏土层在2 s、3 s、5 s和6 s时的变形特征
g—重力加速度，9.81 m/s2；ρ—流体混合物的密度；μ—流体混合物的动力黏度；图底箭头为地震波输入方向a—μ砂为0.005 Pa·s、μ黏土为30 Pa·s；b—μ砂为0.01 Pa·s、μ黏土为10 Pa·s；c—μ砂为0.1 Pa·s、μ黏土为1 Pa·s
Figure 4. Deformation characteristics of the sand–clay layer at 2, 3, 5, and 6 s under different dynamic viscosity contrasts
(a) μsand=0.005 Pa·s, μclay=30 Pa·s；(b) μsand =0.01 Pa·s, μclay =10 Pa·s；(c) μsand =0.1 Pa·s, μclay =1 Pa·sg–gravitational acceleration，9.81 m/s2; ρ–density of the fluid mixture; μ–dynamic viscosity of the fluid mixture. The arrows at the bottom of subfigures indicate the directions of seismic-wave input.
图 5 下伏黏土层厚度不变且上覆砂层厚度发生变化时，砂−黏土层在2 s、3 s、5 s和6 s时的变形特征
g—重力加速度，9.81 m/s2；ρ—流体混合物的密度；μ—流体混合物的动力黏度；图底箭头为地震波输入方向a—砂层厚度为0.5 m；b—砂层厚度为0.4 m；c—砂层厚度为0.3 m
Figure 5. Deformation characteristics of the sand–clay layer at 2, 3, 5, and 6 s with a constant thickness of the underlying clay layer and varying thicknesses of the overlying sand layer
(a) Sand-layer thickness of 0.5 m；(b) Sand-layer thickness of 0.4 m；(c) Sand-layer thickness of 0.3 mg–gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2; ρ–density of the fluid mixture; μ–dynamic viscosity of the fluid mixture. The arrows at the bottom of subfigures indicate the directions of seismic-wave input.
图 6 塔什库尔干湖相沉积负载与球−枕构造和数值模拟结果图
ρ—流体混合物的密度；μ—流体混合物的动力黏度a—负载与球−枕构造野外拍摄图；b—5 s时模拟变形图；c—6 s时模拟变形图
Figure 6. Load and ball-and-pillow structures in lacustrine deposits of Lake Tashkurgan and the results of numerical simulations
(a) Field photograph of load and ball-and-pillow structures；(b) Simulated deformation at 5 s；(c) Simulated deformation at 6 sρ–density of the fluid mixture; μ–dynamic viscosity of the fluid mixture
表 1 沉积模型与数值模拟方案
Table 1. Depositional models and numerical simulation schemes
加速度 沉积层 厚度/m 饱和密度ρ/
（kg/m3）动力黏度μ/
（Pa·s）0.125g
0.25g砂层 0.4 1850 1900 1950 0.010 0.5g
0.8g黏土层 0.4 1750 1700 1650 10 0.5g 砂层 0.4 1900 0.005 0.100 黏土层 0.4 1700 30 1 0.5g 砂层 0.5 0.3 1900 0.010 黏土层 0.4 0.4 1700 10 0.5g 砂层 0.2 1927 0.010 粉砂质黏土层 0.6 1664 10 g—重力加速度，9.81 m/s2 
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表 2 野外实例与数值模拟关键参数对比
Table 2. Comparison of key parameters between field observations and numerical simulation
参数类型 野外实例（塔什库尔干） 数值模拟（文中方案） 上覆砂层厚度 0.15~0.25 m 0.2 m 下伏黏土层厚度 >0.5 m 0.6 m 砂层饱和密度 ~1927 kg/m³ 1927 kg/m³ 黏土层饱和密度 ~1664 kg/m³ 1664 kg/m³ 球−枕体垂直长度 20~30 cm 20~35 cm
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