Drainage characteristics of the Noto Peninsula, Japan, and their implications for seismic hazards
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摘要: 2024年1月1日，日本石川县能登半岛发生了Mw 7.5地震，造成200多人死亡。强烈的地壳变形、海啸和滑坡对该地区造成了广泛破坏。历史上，该地区曾多次发生破坏性地震，并诱发滑坡等地质灾害。因此，准确评估该区域主要断裂带的构造活动性具有重要的现实意义和紧迫性。文章尝试采用流域地貌定量分析方法，探讨该地区的活动构造变形特征及其对潜在地震灾害风险的影响。基于30 m空间分辨率的ASTER GDEM数据，提取了研究区的主要流域河网，并获取了（亚）流域盆地的坡度、起伏度、面积−高程积分（HI）和归一化河道陡峭指数（ksn）等地貌参数，同时评估了流域分水岭的稳定性。在此基础上，结合震后发布的航拍影像及地震滑坡解译数据，分析了地震滑坡对分水岭的影响。通过对比分析流域盆地的地形坡度、起伏度、HI值和ksn值发现，半岛北部沿海地区经历了显著的构造活动变形，且表现出明显的分段性特征。2024年能登地震中2个地表抬升显著的区域正位于该地带。半岛中南部也识别出较强的构造活动区域，其空间分布与地表断裂带高度一致。这些断裂带的构造活动性及其潜在的地震灾害风险应引起高度重视。地震滑坡主要集中在地震高抬升区、流域分水岭及河道附近的陡坡地带，表现出高地形坡度和高ksn值特征。部分滑坡甚至跨越分水岭，影响了流域盆地的整体形态。研究结果为进一步评估能登半岛未来潜在的地震灾害提供了重要的科学依据。Abstract:
Objective On January 1, 2024, a Mw 7.5 earthquake occurred on the Noto Peninsula in Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan, resulting in more than 200 fatalities. The seismic event triggered significant crustal deformation, tsunamis, and landslides, leading to widespread damage across the region. Historically, this area has been prone to destructive earthquakes and associated geological hazards, such as landslides. Therefore, accurately evaluating the tectonic activity of major fault zones in the region is both critically important and urgently needed. Methods This study aims to employ quantitative morphotectonic analysis of drainage landscape to investigate the characteristics of active tectonic deformation and its implications for potential seismic hazards. Based on ASTER GDEM data with a spatial resolution of 30 meters, the drainage network within the study area was delineated. Geomorphic indices, including slope, relief, hypsometrical integral (HI), and normalized channel steepness index (ksn), were calculated for each (sub)watershed basin. Additionally, the stability of drainage divides was assessed. Using this information, and integrating post-earthquake aerial imagery and landslide interpretation data, the influence of earthquake-induced landslides on drainage divides was analyzed. Results Comparative analysis of topographic slope, relief, HI, and ksn values revealed that the northern coastal region of the peninsula has undergone significant tectonic deformation, exhibiting distinct segmentation characteristics. As well, active tectonic zones were identified in the central and southern parts of the peninsula, with spatial distributions closely aligned with known surface fault zones. Earthquake-induced landslides were predominantly concentrated in areas of high uplift, along drainage divides, and on steep slopes adjacent to river channels, characterized by steep topography and elevated ksn values. Some landslides even crossed the divides, thereby altering the overall morphology of the drainage basins. Conclusion As revealed by our geomorphological analysis, the northern regions exhibiting high tectonic activity are consistent with areas that experienced significant surface uplift during the 2024 Noto earthquake. Moreover, the central and southern regions, which are characterized by ongoing active deformation, also require careful assessment of their seismic hazards. Significance The findings of this study provide a crucial scientific basis for evaluating future seismic risk in the Noto Peninsula. -
Key words:
- Noto Peninsula /
- geomorphic indices /
- seismic hazards /
- co-seismic landslides /
- drainage divide
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图 1 日本能登半岛区域地质背景、地貌特征及震源机制解（活动断裂的分布引自Inoue et al.，2010；同震地表抬升量结果据 Ma et al.，2024）
a—日本能登半岛地理位置；b—2024年MW 7.5地震引起的同震地表抬升；c—研究区流域河网分布
Figure 1. Regional geological background, geomorphic features and focal mechanism solutions of the Noto Peninsula, Japan（Distribution of active faults is soured from Inoue et al.，2010；Co-seismic uplift amounts are based on Ma et al.，2024）
(a) The geographical location of the Noto Peninsula, Japan; (b) Co-seismic uplift associated with the Mw 7.5 earthquake in 2024; (c) Drainage network distribution within the study area
图 2 日本能登半岛地形坡度和起伏平面分布图
a—地形坡度图；b—地形起伏度图
Figure 2. Topographic gradient and relief map of the Noto Peninsula, Japan
(a) Topographic gradient map；(b) Topographic relief map
图 3 研究区流域盆地HI值分级及代表性曲线图
a—HI值分级图；b—上凹型、S型和下凹型3种代表性面积−高程积分曲线图
Figure 3. Classification of HI values and representative hypsometric curves for the drainage basins within the study area
(a) Classified HI values; (b) Representative hypsometric curves with upwardly convex, S-shaped and upwardly concave geometries
图 4 ksn分布图及代表性河道剖面上识别的裂点
a—ksn插值与裂点空间分布图；b—g代表性河道剖面及裂点示意图
Figure 4. The ksn map and knickpoints identified from the representative river long-profiles
(a) The interpolated ksn map with identified knickpoints; (b−g) Representative river long-profiles exhibiting knickpoints
图 5 地震滑坡分布特征和抬升样式及其与地形因子的对比
a—地震滑坡分布特征和地表抬升样式；b—地震滑坡与地形坡度；c—地震滑坡与插值的ksn
Figure 5. Characteristics of the co-seismic landslide distribution and uplift patterns, and their correlation with topographic metrics
(a) Co-seismic landslide distribution and uplift patterns; (b) Distribution of co-seismic landslides and slope gradient; (c) Distribution of co-seismic landsides and interpolated ksn values
图 6 航拍影像解译得到的代表性地震滑坡（位置见图6a）
a—流域14内主要滑坡分布图；b—流域24内主要滑坡分布图
Figure 6. Representative landslides identified through the analysis of aerial images (The locations are shown in Fig. 6a)
(a) Co-seismic landslides within the drainage basin 14; (b) Co-seismic landslides within the drainage basin 24
图 7 基于Chi值推断的主分水岭迁移方向
Figure 7. The migration direction of the main drainage divide predicted by χ values
图 8 第14号流域分水岭附近的同震滑坡分布
a—地震滑坡分布情况以及Chi值预测的分水岭迁移方向；b—同震滑坡跨过流域分水岭（底图为谷歌影像）
Figure 8. Distribution of co-seismic landslides near the divide of the drainage No. 14
(a) Distribution of co-seismic landslides and the divide migration direction predicted by χ values; (b) Co-seismic landslides crossing the drainage divide (Base map derived from Google Earth imagery)
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