青藏高原东北缘弧形构造生长：来自三维有限元数值模拟的启示

赵一霖; 孙玉军; 侯贵廷; 施炜

doi:10.12090/j.issn.1006-6616.2025037

青藏高原东北缘弧形构造生长：来自三维有限元数值模拟的启示

doi: 10.12090/j.issn.1006-6616.2025037

赵一霖^{1, 2, 3,},
孙玉军^{1, 3},
侯贵廷^2, ,,
施炜^{1, 3}

1.
中国地质科学院，北京 100037
2.
北京大学地球与空间科学学院，北京 100871
3.
自然资源部深地科学与探测技术实验室，北京 100094

基金项目: 深地国家科技重大专项（2024ZD1001102）；国家自然科学基金项目（42472278）

详细信息

作者简介:
赵一霖（1994—），男，在读博士，构造地质学专业，主要从事构造地貌和数值模拟方向的研究。Email：18811680869@163.com

通讯作者:
侯贵廷（1964—），男，教授，主要从事构造数值模拟、裂缝油气田模拟、地震深部动力学研究。Email：gthou@pku.edu.cn

中图分类号: P542；P311.2
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出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2025-04-05
- 修回日期: 2025-05-09
- 录用日期: 2025-05-12
- 预出版日期: 2025-05-22
- 刊出日期: 2025-06-28

The outward growth of the arcuate tectonic belt in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau: Insights from three-dimensional finite element numerical simulations

ZHAO Yilin^{1, 2, 3
,},
SUN Yujun^{1, 3},
HOU Guiting^{2
, ,},
SHI Wei^{1, 3}

1.
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
2.
School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
3.
SinoProbe Laboratory, Ministry of Natural Resources of China, Beijing 100094, China

Funds: This research is financially supported by the National Science and Technology Major Project of China on Deep Earth Exploration (Grant No.2024ZD1001102) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.42472278).

摘要

摘要: 青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带是青藏高原侧向生长的独特边界，以垂直于高原扩展方向的盆−山相间的弧形地貌为特征，代表了青藏高原扩展的独特生长方式。此次研究旨在运用三维有限元黏−塑性大变形数值模拟方法再现青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带的形成和演化过程，提出弧形构造生长的新构造样式和变形机制。此次模拟基于大量地质与地球物理资料，测试了银川盆地阻挡和弱的下地壳对弧形构造带内断裂发育的控制作用。结果表明，在青藏高原向东北扩展的过程中，地壳缩短增厚变形由高原向东北传播，受北东—南西向挤压作用，地块围限的中—新生代盆地区（弧形构造带）的深部物质向东北迁移，在受到刚性的鄂尔多斯地块和阿拉善地块阻挡后，向强度相对较弱的银川盆地有限挤入。银川盆地的阻挡是弧形构造带断裂在浅部地壳形成和发育的重要条件。黏度为2.5×10²² Pa·s 、黏聚力为2 MPa的弱下地壳对弧形构造带内断裂发育有促进作用，但不是断裂形成的必要条件。进一步分析青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带地表和3条剖面最大剪应变率分布特征及其随时间演化的规律发现，弧形构造带在深部总体上表现为“对冲”构造样式，指示深−浅变形机制存在解耦现象。弧形构造带的变形解耦深度在20 km和40 km发生，形成了3个构造层。其中的中—上地壳构造层以逆冲−褶皱构造变形方式调节地壳水平缩短和垂向增厚；而弱的下地壳作为弧形构造发育的滑脱层，以韧−塑性变形方式调节地壳水平缩短和垂向增厚；岩石圈地幔由于莫霍面的调节作用，也存在一定程度的缩短增厚。综合分析认为，青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带是在先存断裂和拆离带的控制下，主控断裂在9.5~2.5 Ma同步发育，并向深部扩展，最终切入中—下地壳。新的模拟研究结果为深化对青藏高原东北缘隆升和横向生长过程的认识提供了参考。
- 青藏高原东北缘 /
- 弧形构造 /
- 新生代 /
- 形成机制 /
- 有限元数值模拟
Abstract: Objective The arcuate tectonic belt in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau is a unique boundary for the lateral growth of the Tibetan Plateau. Characterized by an arcuate geomorphology with alternating basins and mountains perpendicular to the direction of plateau expansion, it represents a unique growth mode of the Tibetan Plateau. This study aims to reproduce the formation and evolution process of the arcuate tectonic belt in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau using three-dimensional finite element visco-plastic large deformation numerical simulation. It also proposes a new structural pattern and deformation mechanism for the outward growth of the arcuate tectonic belt. Methods Three tests based on a large amount of geological and geophysical data were conducted to investigate how the barrier of the Yinchuan Basin and the weak lower crust control the development of faults within the arcuate tectonic belt. Results The results show that, as the Tibetan Plateau expanded northeastward, the shortening and thickening of the crust propagated from the plateau to the northeast. Under NE–SW compression, the deep-seated materials in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins (arcuate tectonic belts), which were confined by blocks, migrated northeastward. After being blocked by the rigid Ordos and Alxa blocks, these materials were squeezed into the relatively weak Yinchuan Basin to a limited extent. The obstruction by the Yinchuan Basin is an important condition for the formation and development of the faults within the shallow crust of the arcuate tectonic belt. A weak lower crust with a viscosity of 2.5×10²² Pa·s and a cohesion of 2 MPa promotes fault development within the arcuate tectonic belt, but it is not a necessary prerequisite for fault formation. This paper analyzes the distribution of the maximum shear strain rate on the surface and along three sections of the arcuate tectonic belt as well as the evolution of these characteristics over time. It is proposed that the arcuate tectonic belt generally exhibits a "ramp-thrusting" structural pattern in the deeper sections, and the deformation mechanism is characterized by deep–shallow decoupling. The deformation of the lithosphere within the arcuate tectonic belt decoupled at depths of 20 km and 40 km, forming three tectonic layers. The middle–upper crust is dominated by thrust and fold structures, regulating the horizontal shortening and vertical thickening of the crust; the weak lower crust completes the horizontal shortening and vertical thickening of the crust through ductile–plastic deformation and serves as a detachment layer for the development of arcuate structures; the lithospheric mantle, due to the regulating effect of the Moho surface, underwent limited shortening and thickening. Conclusion Under the control of the preexisting fault zones in the southern and northern margins and the detachment zones, the main arcuate faults developed synchronously during the period of 9.5–2.5 Ma. Then, they extended in depth and finally cut into the middle crust. [ Significance ] This study deepens the understanding of the uplift and lateral growth of the Tibetan Plateau, and provides a reference for the study of the deep–shallow processes involved in arcuate structure formation.
- northeastern Tibetan Plateau /
- arcuate tectonic belt /
- Cenozoic /
- formation mechanism /
- finite element numerical simulation

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图 1 青藏高原及其邻区构造地貌图

断层数据来自地震活动断层调查数据中心，https://www.activefault-datacenter.cn；DEM数据来自地理空间数据云，http://www.gscloud.cn

Figure 1. Tectonic geomorphological map of the Tibetan Plateau and adjacent regions

The fault data source was from the Data Sharing Infrastructure of the Seismic Active Fault Survey Data Center, https://www.activefault-datacenter.cn. The DEM data with a resolution of 90 m was acquired from the Geospatial Data Cloud, http://www.gscloud.cn.

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图 2 青藏高原东北缘弧形构造地质简图（据Shi et al.，2020b修改）

F₁—海原断裂带；F₂—香山−天景山断裂带；F₃—烟筒山断裂带；F₄—牛首山−罗山断裂带；F₅—西秦岭北缘断裂；F₆—马衔山断裂带；F₇—黄河断裂带；F₈—贺兰山东麓断裂带；F₉—小关山断裂带部分；取自OSGeo中国中心提供的中国各省在线地质图（https://www.osgeo.cn/），涵盖甘肃、青海、陕西、宁夏回族自治区和内蒙古自治区

Figure 2. Schematic geological map of the study area (modified after Shi et al., 2020b）

F₁–Haiyuan Fault Zone; F₂– Xiangshan–Tianjingshan Fault Zone; F₃–Yantongshan Fault Zone; F₄–Niushoushan–Luoshan Fault Zone; F₅–Northern margin fault of the West Qinling Mountains; F₆– Maxianshan Fault Zone; F₇–Yellow River Fault Zone; F₈–East piedmont fault of Helan Shan; F₉– Xiaoguanshan Fault Zone; The expanded portion is from the online geological maps of Chinese provinces offered by the OSGeo China Center, https://www.osgeo.cn/, which cover Gansu, Qinghai, Shaanxi, the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region)

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图 3 青藏高原东北部及邻区构造地貌特征及地壳厚度分布

剖面Ⅰ参考王帅军等，2017；剖面Ⅱ参考王帅军等，2019；剖面Ⅲ参考Song et al.，2024；剖面Ⅳ参考Tian et al.，2021；剖面Ⅴ和剖面Ⅵ参考Shen et al.，2022；剖面Ⅶ参考Li et al.，2022和Zhang et al.，2013；剖面Ⅷ参考Jia et al.，2010相关地壳厚度数据来自地壳1.0模型（https://igppweb.ucsd.edu/~gabi/crust1.html）；断裂带注释如同图2

Figure 3. Tectonic geomorphological features and crustal thickness distribution in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau and adjacent areas

Profile Ⅰ refers to Wang et al. (2017)；Profile Ⅱ refers to Wang et al. (2019)；Profile Ⅲ refers to Song et al. (2024)；Profile Ⅳ refers to Tian et al. (2021)；Profile Ⅴ and Profile Ⅵ refer to Shen et al. (2022)；Profile Ⅶ refers to Li et al. (2022) and Zhang et al. (2013)；Profile Ⅷ refers to Jia et al. (2010). The data pertaining to the crustal thickness is from the publicly accessible CRUST 1.0 model, available at the website: https://igppweb.ucsd.edu/~gabi/crust1.html; Refer to Fig. 2 for the annotations of the fault zones.

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图 4 青藏高原东北部及邻区有效黏度等值线图以及主要断裂带（据Sun et al.，2025修改；其中岩石圈结构的有效黏度根据CRUST1.0模型，http://igppweb.ucsd.edu/~gabi/rem.html；断裂带图例及编号参考图2）

a—20 km深度有效黏度等值线图及主要断裂带；b—60 km深度有效黏度等值线图及主要断裂带

Figure 4. Contour maps of effective viscosity and the major faults in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau and adjacent areas (modified according to Sun et al., 2025; The effective viscosity of the lithosphere structure is based on the CRUST1.0 model, http://igppweb.ucsd.edu/~gabi/rem.html; The legend and numbers of the fault zones are referenced from Fig. 2 )

(a) Contour map of effective viscosity at depth of 20 km and main fault zones; (b) Contour map of effective viscosity at depth of 60 km and main fault zones

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图 5 初始模型和边界条件以及网格划分和垂向分层方案

OB—鄂尔多斯地块；AB—阿拉善地块；YCB—银川盆地；LZB—陇中地块；ATB—弧形构造；F₁—海原断裂带；F₄—牛首山−罗山断裂带

Figure 5. Initial model and boundary conditions, scheme of mesh discretization and vertical stratification

(a) Initial model and boundary conditions; (b) Scheme of mesh discretization; (c) Scheme of vertical stratification OB–Ordos Block; AB–Alxa Block; YCB–Yinchuan Basin; LZB–Longzhong Block; ATB–Arcuate Tectonic Belt; F₁–Haiyuan Fault Zone; F₄–Niushoushan–Luoshan Fault Zone

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图 6 Case-1和Case-2模型最大剪应变率分布特征

断裂带图例和编号请参考图2；图中数值用科学计数法表示，E代表以10为底的指数，如1.5E-015为1.5×10⁻¹⁵a—Case-1模型最大剪应变率分布特征（在~2.5 Ma时的结果）；b—Case-2模型最大剪应变率分布特征（在~2.5 Ma时的结果）

Figure 6. The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate for the Case-1 and Case-2 models

(a) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate for the Case-1 model (the result at ~2.5 Ma); (b) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate for the Case-2 model (the result at ~2.5 Ma)The values in the figure are expressed in scientific notation, where E represents the exponent with base 10The legend and numbers of the fault zones are referenced from Fig. 2

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图 7 Case-3模型地表最大剪应变率分布特征及其随时间演化规律

3条剖面A–A’、B–B’和C–C’在（a）中用黑线表示；断裂带图例和编号请参考图2；图中数值用科学计数法表示，E代表以10为底的指数，如1.25E-015为1.25×10⁻¹⁵a—地表最大剪应变率在~9 Ma的分布特征；b—地表最大剪应变率在~7 Ma的分布特征；c—地表最大剪应变率在~5 Ma的分布特征；d—地表最大剪应变率在~2.5 Ma的分布特征

Figure 7. The distribution of the maximum shear strain rates on the surface and the characteristics of their evolution over time

(a) Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate on the surface at ~9 Ma; (b) Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate on the surface at ~7 Ma; (c) Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate on the surface at ~5 Ma; (d) Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate on the surface at ~2.5 MaThe three cross-sections A–A', B–B', and C–C' are indicated by black lines in (a). The legend and numbers of the fault zones are referenced from Fig. 2. The values in the figure are expressed in scientific notation, where E represents the exponent with base 10.

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图 8 Case-3模型A–A′剖面最大剪应变率分布特征及其随时间演化规律

图中数值用科学计数法表示，E代表以10为底的指数，如4.8E-016为4.8×10⁻¹⁶a—最大剪应变率沿A-A′剖面在~9 Ma的分布特征；b—最大剪应变率沿A-A′剖面在~7 Ma的分布特征；c—最大剪应变率沿A-A′剖面在~5 Ma的分布特征；d—最大剪应变率沿A-A′剖面在~2.5 Ma的分布特征

Figure 8. The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the A–A′ section in the Case-3 model and the characteristics of their evolution over time

(a) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the A–A' section at ~9 Ma; (b) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the A–A' section at ~7 Ma; (c) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the A–A' section at ~5 Ma; (d) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the A–A' section at ~2.5 MaThe values in the figure are expressed in scientific notation, where E represents the exponent with base 10

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图 9 Case-3模型B–B′剖面最大剪应变率分布特征及其随时间演化规律

图中数值用科学计数法表示，E代表以10为底的指数，如6.2E-016为2.6×10⁻¹⁶a—最大剪应变率沿B-B′剖面在~9 Ma的分布特征；b—最大剪应变率沿B-B′剖面在~7 Ma的分布特征；c—最大剪应变率沿B-B′剖面在~5 Ma的分布特征；d—最大剪应变率沿B-B′剖面在~2.5 Ma的分布特征

Figure 9. The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the B–B′ section in the Case-3 model and the laws of their evolution over time

(a) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the B–B' section at ~9 Ma; (b) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the B–B' section at ~7 Ma; (c) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the B–B' section at ~5 Ma; (d) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the B–B' section at ~2.5 MaThe values in the figure are expressed in scientific notation, where E represents the exponent with base 10

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图 10 Case-3模型C–C′剖面最大剪应变率分布特征及其随时间演化规律

图中数值用科学计数法表示，E代表以10为底的指数，如6.6E-016为6.6×10⁻¹⁶a—最大剪应变率沿C-C′剖面在~9 Ma的分布特征；b—最大剪应变率沿C-C′剖面在~7 Ma的分布特征；c—最大剪应变率沿C-C′剖面在~5 Ma的分布特征；d—最大剪应变率沿C-C′剖面在~2.5 Ma的分布特征

Figure 10. The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the C–C′ section in the Case-3 model and the laws of their evolution over time

(a) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the C–C' section at ~9 Ma; (b) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the C–C' section at ~7 Ma; (c) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the C–C' section at ~5 Ma; (d) The distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the C–C' section at ~2.5 MaThe values in the figure are expressed in scientific notation, where E represents the exponent with base 10

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图 11 青藏高原东北缘弧形构造生长模型

Figure 11. The models for the growth of the arcuate structure in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau

(a) Forward expansion mode; (b) Backward expansion mode; (c) Disordered expansion mode; (d) Thrust–slip transformation mode

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图 12 青藏高原东北缘弧形构造同步生长模式图

断裂图例参考图11（a）青藏高原东北缘弧形构造在~9 Ma的深部变形特征；（b）青藏高原东北缘弧形构造在~7 Ma的深部变形特征；（c）青藏高原东北缘弧形构造在~5 Ma的深部变形特征；（d）青藏高原东北缘弧形构造在~2.5 Ma的深部变形特征

Figure 12. The synchronous growth model for the arcuate structure in the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau

(a) The deep deformation of the arcuate structure in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau at 9 Ma; (b) The deep deformation of the arcuate structure in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau at 7 Ma; (c) The deep deformation of the arcuate structure in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau at 5 Ma; (d) The deep deformation of the arcuate structure in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau at 2.5 MaSee Fig. 11 for the fault legend

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图 13 Case-3中最大剪应变率沿3条剖面的分布特征及构造解译

断裂图例参考图11；图中数值用科学计数法表示，E代表以10为底的指数，如4.8E-016为4.8×10⁻¹⁶a—最大剪应变率在~2.5 Ma沿A-A^,剖面的分布特征；b—最大剪应变率在~2.5 Ma沿B-B^,剖面的分布特征；c—最大剪应变率在~2.5 Ma沿C-C^,剖面的分布特征

Figure 13. Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along three profiles in Case-3 (based on the results at ~2.5 Ma) and structural interpretation

(a) Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the A–A' section at ~2.5 Ma; (b) Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the B–B' section at ~2.5 Ma; (c) Distribution of the maximum shear strain rate along the C–C' section at ~2.5 MaThe values in the figure are expressed in scientific notation, where E represents the exponent with base 10.See Fig. 11 for the fault legend.

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表 1 青藏高原东北缘弧形断裂带构造演化

Table 1. Tectonic evolution of the arcuate fault zones in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau

断裂带及其名称	启动年龄/Ma	最大水平挤压应力方向	断层机制	现今走滑速率/（mm/a）
海原断裂带（F₁）	~9.5（Shi et al.，2015）	NE—SW （Shi et al.，2015）	逆冲（Shi et al.，2015）	1~6 （Chen et al.，2023）
	5.4（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016； Chen et al.，2023）	ENE—WSW （Shi et al.，2015）	逆冲兼左旋走滑（Shi et al.，2015；雷启云等，2016）
	2.7（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016； Chen et al.，2023）	ENE—WSW （Shi et al.，2015）	左旋走滑（西段）；逆冲兼左旋走滑（东段）（Shi et al.，2015；雷启云等，2016）
香山−天景山断裂带（F₂）	5.4（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016； Chen et al.，2023）	NE—SW （Shi et al.，2015）	逆冲兼左旋走滑（Shi et al.，2015；雷启云等，2016）	2.3~2.9 （Chen et al.，2023）
香山−天景山断裂带（F₂）	~2.7（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016； Chen et al.，2023）	ENE—WSW （Shi et al.，2015）	正-左旋走滑（西段）；逆冲兼左旋走滑（东段）（Shi et al.，2015；雷启云等，2016）	2.3~2.9 （Chen et al.，2023）
烟筒山断裂带（F₃）	5.4 （董晓朋等，2020）或 ~2.7（王伟涛等，2013；雷启云等，2016；Chen et al.，2023）	NE—SW 或 ENE—WSW （Shi et al.，2015）	逆冲兼左旋走滑（雷启云等，2016）	尚未测定
牛首山−罗山断裂带（F₄）	~2.5（Chen et al.，2015）	NW—SE （Chen et al.，2015）	逆冲兼左旋走滑（陈虹等，2013）	0.35（Chen et al.，2023）
牛首山−罗山断裂带（F₄）	0.15（Chen et al.，2015）	NNE—SSW （Chen et al.，2015）	右旋走滑（陈虹等，2013）	0.35（Chen et al.，2023）
注：烟筒山断裂带（F₃）的启动年龄尚未被精准测定，估算得出。

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表 2 模型参数

Table 2. Model Parameters

地块	分层	Case-1		Case-2		Case-3
地块	分层	$ {\eta }_{{\mathrm{eff}}} $ / Pa·s	C/MPa	$ {\eta }_{{\mathrm{eff}}} $ /（Pa·s）	C/MPa	$ {\eta }_{{\mathrm{eff}}} $ /（Pa·s）	C/MPa
鄂尔多斯地块和阿拉善地块	上地壳	1 × 10²³	3× 10⁵	1 × 10²³	3× 10⁵	1 × 10²³	3× 10⁵
	中地壳
	下地壳
	岩石圈地幔
银川盆地	上地壳	2.5 × 10²²	5	2.5 × 10²²	3 × 10³	2.5 × 10²²	3 × 10³
	中地壳
	下地壳
	岩石圈地幔		50
弧形构造带	上地壳	2.5 × 10²²	5	2.5 × 10²²	5	2.5 × 10²²	5
	中地壳						5
	下地壳						2
	岩石圈地幔		50		50		50
陇中地块	上地壳	2.5 × 10²²	20	2.5 × 10²²	20	2.5 × 10²²	20
	中地壳						20
	下地壳						2
	岩石圈地幔		50		50		50
注：上地壳密度为2700 kg/m³，中地壳密度为2800 kg/m³，下地壳密度为3000 kg/m³，岩石圈地幔密度为3300 kg/m³

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